Glossary

spirit objects, made specifically for burial (for example, the lacquered wood coffins, crude wooden figurines of servants and musicians dressed in painted or real silks, and clay coins made in imitation of real money)

First Gothic style Cathedral

Refers to the Aegean Sea, the northern portion of the Mediterranean between Greece and Turkey and extending south to the island of Crete. In art history this designation refers to the era of the Bronze Age, the 3rd and 2nd millennium B.C.E.
https://smarthistory.org/an-introduction-to-the-ancient-aegean/

A Trojan survivor of the Trojan War who, according to legend, journeyed to Italy and founded the bloodline that would eventually lead to the Julio-Claudian emperors.

In ancient Greek cities an open central space used as a market and public gathering place.

Maya divine lord title

Tiered pyramid located in Tiwanaku's ceremonial center.

Alexander III of Macedonia (b. 356 BCE-d. 323 BCE) was the king of Macedonia (r. 336-323 BCE). Known in art history for spreading Greek art and culture far beyond its borders.
See: https://human.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/History/World_History/Western_Civilization_-_A_Concise_History_I_(Brooks)/08%3A_The_Hellenistic_Era/8.02%3A_Alexander_the_Great

A period of Ancient Egyptian history during the New Kingdom 1353-1336 BCE.
See more here: https://www.britannica.com/art/Amarna-style

The passage around the apse in a basilica church or around the central space in a central-plan building.

(Greek: αμφορέας). A two-handled jar used for storing wine, olive oil, or other liquids. In ancient Greece, pottery amphorae (pl.) were often decorated in the black-figure and red-figure techniques.

A culture who occupied the Four Corners region of the USA between the 9th-12th centuries. Formerly known as the Anasazi.

The largest religious monument in the world located in Siem Reap, Cambodia. It was built in the 12th century by King Suryavarman II.

Although they have previously been referred to as "Anglo-Saxons," the people of early England were not of a singular cultural identity. The period and place were quite diverse. People may have sometimes referred to themselves as Anglicans (or Anglecynns) or Englisc, but Anglo-Saxon is an invented identity with more recent ties to racist and nationalist ideologies.

1. In the fifth century C.E., people from tribes called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes left their homelands in northern Europe to settle in Britain.
2. relating to or denoting the Germanic inhabitants of England from their arrival in the 5th century up to the Norman Conquest.

Decoration consisting of interwoven, distorted animals, a typical style in Early Medieval northern European art. Also known as animal interlace.

The hieroglyph meaning “life”, frequently used in the decoration of Egyptian tombs as a symbol for eternal life. The ankh has the shape of a cross, but with a loop replacing the top arm.

Having a human-like form or attributes.

The great audience hall in ancient Persian palaces.

A semicircular or polygonal recess in a building. In Christian architecture, an apse is often found at the east end of a basilica church.

A system for conveying water by gravity flow from a source to the place where it will be used. Roman aqueducts often consisted of long arcades carrying a covered water channel.

A series of arches carried by columns or piers.

In architecture, a curved structural element that spans a space. For arch types see: triumphal arch, horseshoe arch, keel arch, corbeled arch, ogee arch.

In ancient Greek art, the period from 600 to 480 BCE. The Archaic period saw the development of the Doric and Ionic orders in temple architecture, the kouros and kore types in sculpture, and the black-figure and red-figure techniques in vase painting. The Archaic period followed the Orientalizing and preceded the Classical period. The Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BCE marks the end of the Archaic.

subtle upturned smiles on Greek Archaic figures thought to symbolize profound well-being.

A band of moldings framing an arched opening.

This refers to the Athenian system of democratic government (5th to 4th century BCE), in which male citizens (dēmos) had equal political rights, freedom of speech, and the opportunity to participate in the political arena.
See: https://www.worldhistory.org/Athenian_Democracy/

An extinct European mammal, Bos primigenius, the ancestor of domestic cattle.

A sign of good fortune and future success.

The central artery of Teotihuacan, which extends more than 1.5 miles across the city.
See: https://smarthistory.org/teotihuacan-2/

a line through the earth’s center around which the universe is thought to revolve.

Before the Common Era; this is a system used to designate time periods.

Balance is an even use of elements throughout a work of art.

An elongated or continuous semicircular vault, shaped like a half-cylinder. Also known as tunnel vault.

See relief sculpture.

A Christian church building that has a nave with a semicircular apse, side aisles, a narthex and a clerestory.

bell tower

a sacred stone; an icon of the primeval mound that was considered the place of initial creation

A technique of ancient Greek pottery decoration in which images are painted with slip against a reddish or tan background (the natural color of the clay). The painted areas turn black when the pot is fired in a kiln. Details are incised into the black slip.

A modern term used to describe selections from ancient Egyptian funerary literature which were placed in the burial chamber or inside the sarcophagus of the deceased. The texts consisted of spells intended to guide the dead person’s journey through the underworld and into the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was usually written in hieroglyphic script on rolls of papyrus and often illustrated with scenes depicting the deceased on his or her journey.

An alloy of copper and tin.

This term is applied to the 3rd and 2nd millennium B.C.E. in the Aegean region.

A type of black, burnished, fineware pottery produced by the ancient Etruscan culture in central Italy.

a painting technique in which water-based paint is applied to a surface of wet plaster and bonds with the plaster as it dries.

A freestanding sculpture of the head, shoulders and chest of a person.

An architectural structure built against or projecting from a wall that serves to support or reinforce the wall.

In reference to the Italo-Byzantine style: elements; sometimes applied to the debased style of the later Roman Empire, but especially to the more developed architecture prevailing from the 8th to the 12th centuries.

New capital of the Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) established by Constantine I in 330 CE in the existing city of Byzantium. Renamed after Constantine.

Common Era; this is a term used to designate periods. We currently live in the 21st century CE.

A system of mathematical ratios based on measurements of parts of the human body, designed to create ideal proportions for the human figure in art.

The topmost part of a column.

An underground cemetery consisting of tunnels on multiple levels. Catacombs were provided with shelf-like niches (loculi) for regular burials and “bedrooms” (cubicula) for more elite burials.

The main interior room of a Greek or Roman temple, where the cult statue was placed. Also called the naos.

In architecture, a plan in which the parts of a building radiate from a central point. Examples include circular, octagonal and Greek cross plans.

Having a central nave with an aisle on either side separated by a colonnade, and an apse at one end.

A cup, usually of gold or silver, used to hold the consecrated wine during the celebration of the Eucharist in a Christian church.

In Buddhism and Hinduism the chatra (Sanskit: “parasol”) is an auspicious symbol, representing royalty and protection. Chatras in the form of stone disks typically decorate the yasti at the apex of a Buddhist stupa. Also spelled chattra, chhatra.

Chavín de Huántar is an archaeological and cultural site in the Andean highlands of Peru occupied from c. 1200 -400 BCE.

A legendary, fire-breathing monster of Greek myth that hailed from Lycia (southwestern Asia Minor). It is the offspring of Typhon and Echidna. Typically the Chimera is a hybrid—often shown with elements from more than one animal incorporated into the whole; most often these include a lion’s head, with a goat rising from its back, and a snaky tail.
See: https://smarthistory.org/chimera-of-arezzo/

The area of a cruciform church between the crossing and the altar. This part of the church provides seating for singers and the clergy.

A central area in a city that is heavily fortified.

A period of Ancient Greek art that began with the Greek victory over the Persians in 480 BCE and lasted until about 323 BCE. The period's art features the ideals of balance, proportion, and idealism.

Last ruler of ancient Egypt before it became part of the Roman Empire.

The upper part of a wall that contains windows that let in natural light to a building, especially in the nave, transept, and choir of a church or cathedral.

A metalwork technique in which wires are soldered onto a metal surface to form compartments (cloisons). The compartments are filled with enamel or cut gemstones.

covered walkway

The situation wherein a monarchical position, normally held by one person, is held by two.

Recessed decorative features used to decorate ceilings, vaults or domes.

a row of columns that supports a roof, entablature, or other structure.

Light reflected off objects.

An architectural element consisting of a shaft, round or polygonal in section, used for structural support or decoration. Columns usually are placed on a base and topped by a capital. Columns that are attached to a wall are called engaged columns or half-columns.

The arrangement of elements in a work of art.

A versatile building material composed of sand, water, cement (a powdery substance made of calcined lime and clay) and aggregate (rubble, gravel, crushed stone). When these ingredients are mixed together, they form a fluid mass that is easily molded into shape and sets into a hard, durable material. The ancient Romans pioneered the use of concrete in architecture.

Flavius Valerius Constantinus, Roman emperor (r. 306-337)who issued the Edict of Milan granting religious tolerance in the empire. Known as the first Christian emperor (although he likely still worshipped the old Roman gods). He moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople in 330 CE.

A way of representing the human body so that the weight appears to be supported on one leg. Contrapposto was discovered by ancient Greek sculptors and rediscovered by Renaissance artists in Europe.

An arch formed by courses of stone, each of which projects inward beyond the lower course until the two sides of the arch meet at the top. Also known as a corbeled vault.

An arch formed by courses of stone, each of which projects inward beyond the lower course until the two sides of the arch meet at the top. Also known as a corbeled arch.

an architectural order that is distinguished by a slender, fluted column, whose capital decorated with acanthus leaves and scrolls.

1. The uppermost section of moldings along the top of a wall or just below a roof. 2. In Greek, Roman, and Neoclassical architecture, the upper portion of the entablature, located above the architrave and the frieze.

a layer of brick, or other masonry material, laid in horizontal rows

Creative Commons is an international nonprofit organization that empowers people to grow and sustain the thriving commons of shared knowledge and culture we need to address the world's most pressing challenges and create a brighter future for all.

The area in a cruciform church where the transept intersects the nave.

One of a series of ostensibly religious campaigns by Christian forces from the 11th to the 13th century, mostly to capture the Holy Land from the Muslims who occupied it.

Human beings engaged in ritual activity.

An ancient Mesopotamian writing system using wedge-shaped characters. Cuneiform characters were normally impressed on clay tablets using a pointed tool called a stylus.

The Cyclades (often referred to as the Greek Islands) are a group of islands to the southeast of Mainland Greece in close proximity to one another.

A Bronze Age culture of the Cyclades islands, emerging around 3000 BCE.

In the ancient Mesopotamian and Indus Valley cultures, a small, cylindrical stone incised with a figural scene, design, and/or inscription. When the seal was rolled across wax or wet clay, the resulting raised image served as a mark of ownership or an authenticating signature.

Decoration on embroidered silks is stitched into the cloth, while the design on damask silk is woven in.

a Chinese philosophy based on the writings of Lao-tzu ( fl. 6th century BC), advocating humility and religious piety.

A ruler with total power over the country.

A two-piece, hinged panel painting or plaque.

Sculptures that were the subject of daily rituals of clothing, anointing, and perfuming with incense and were carried in processions for special festivals so that the people could “see” them (they were almost all entirely shrouded from view, but their “presence” was felt).
See: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-arthistory1/chapter/egyptian-art/#:~:text=Divine%20cult%20statues%20(few%20of,%E2%80%9Cpresence%E2%80%9D%20was%20felt).

A megalithic tomb built with two or more upright stones capped by a flat stone. Dolmens dating to the Neolithic period are found in Britain and Western Europe.

In architecture a vault, usually circular at the base and rising above the central part of a building. Domes come in a wide variety of forms, including saucer-shaped, onion-shaped, oval, pumpkin-shaped, bulbous, parabolic, and hemispheric. A dome can be elevated by being placed on top of a circular or polygonal drum.

an architectural order whose capital is characterized by an abacus (square block) above the echinus (circular block).

A long, narrow passage to a tomb.

A cylindrical or polygonal vertical wall supporting a dome.

A series of rulers or leaders who are all from the same family, or a period when a country is ruled by succeeding family members.

Pottery made from porous clay fired at a relatively low temperature. This type of pottery needs to be glazed to make it waterproof.

Passed by Constantine I and Licinius in February 313 CE, the proclamation declared religious tolerance of Christianity in the Roman Empire.

The technique of working ornamental design on woven fabric using a needle and threads of silk, cotton, gold, silver, or other material.

The third emperor of the Mauryan dynasty (the first Indian empire), Emperor Ashoka (pronounced Ashoke), who ruled from c. 279–232 B.C.E., was the first leader to accept Buddhism and thus the first major patron of Buddhist art.

A column, usually half-round in section, that is attached to a wall. Also known as a half-column.

In Greek, Roman, and Neoclassical architecture, the horizontal upper section of a building, below the roof and pediment. The entablature rests on the column capitals and consists of the architrave, frieze and cornice.

Name of the Etruscan kingdom; included modern-day Tuscany and part of Umbria. It was established in the 7th century BCE and reached its height in the 6th century BCE.

The modern name given to a civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Latium.

face of a building, usually the front.

A colorful, glassy material made by grinding quartz or sand with sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and/or copper oxide. The resulting substance is formed into the desired shape, such as a bead, amulet, or sculpture, then fired. During firing, the pieces harden and develop a glassy finish with bright colors (blue-green being the most common). The ancient Egyptians perfected faience-making, perhaps in an attempt to imitate the colors of turquoise and other gemstones.

A social system based on personal ownership of resources and fealty between a suzerain (lord) and a vassal (subject). Defining characteristics are direct ownership of resources, personal loyalty, and a hierarchical social structure reinforced by religion.

A brooch used to fasten garments at the shoulder in antiquity and the Early Medieval and Byzantine periods. Often made of precious materials and highly decorated, fibulae (pl.) worked like modern safety pins.

A Roman imperial dynasty that ruled the Roman Empire from 69 to 96 CE, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian.

In Gothic architecture, a structural element that carries the thrust of the nave vault over the side aisles through masonry struts and arches.

A three-dimensional composition or object.

In ancient Roman urban planning, the city center. An open space used for markets and gatherings of citizens, surrounded by temples and public buildings.

A painting technique in which water-based paint is applied to a surface of wet plaster and bonds with the plaster as it dries. In Italian, the technique is known as buon fresco. Painting on dry plaster, known as fresco secco, is less durable.

painting on dry plaster which is less durable.

1) Any continuous flat band of relief sculpture or painting.

2) In classical architecture, the middle element of an entablature, between the cornice and the architrave.

In church architecture, an upper story above the aisle and overlooking the nave. Also known as a tribune.

The space in a Hindu vimana that houses the primary image of the temple.

Tiwanaku's monolithic portal carved out of a single block of andesite. It's lintel depicts the site's principal deity.

Egyptian daybooks

The Geometric period in ancient Greek art lasted from ca. 900 to ca. 700 BCE. It is named for the geometric patterns and motifs that were prevalent on pottery at this time. Painted vases were covered with lozenges, zigzags, checkerboards, meanders, and other abstract decorative motifs. Toward the end of the period simplified human and animal figures were introduced. Scholars subdivide the Geometric period into three parts: Early Geometric (ca. 900-850), Middle Geometric (ca. 850-760), and Late Geometric (ca. 760-700).

Having a vitreous coating whose primary purposes are decoration or protection.

entryway

A storehouse or room in a barn for threshed grain or animal feed.

A decorative metalwork technique in which tiny balls of metal (granules) are fused to a metal surface.

Large structures built of stone and wood by the Ancient Puebloan culture.

A series of conflicts between Persia (Achaemenid Empire) and the Greek city-states (499-449 BCE).

The dominant architectural form of middle- and late-period Byzantine churches, featuring a square center with an internal structure shaped like a cross, topped by a dome.

The intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults.

In two-dimensional art and relief sculpture, a line representing the ground level on which figures appear to stand.

A text that sets forth the order of the Passover seder.

In East Asian art, a long, narrow, horizontally oriented painting on paper or silk. Handscrolls are stored wrapped around wooden dowels and are unrolled for viewing.

Terracotta figurines set on and around funerary tumuli during the Kofun period (ca. 3rd century CE to 538 CE) in Japan. Pronunciation here.

Two of the major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization during the Bronze Age.

The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-1300 BCE, also known as the Harappan Civilization, extended from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
See: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/world-history-beginnings/ancient-india/a/the-indus-river-valley-civilizations

In Buddhist architecture, a square fence-like enclosure symbolizing heaven on top of the dome of a stupa. The harmika encloses the yasti with its chatras.

In Greek art and architecture, the period that immediately follows the Classical. Scholars do not all agree about which historical events mark the beginning and the end of the Hellenistic period. However, by convention, most accept the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE as the starting point and 31 BCE, the date of the Battle of Actium, as the end point. During the Hellenistic era Greek cultural influence reached its peak in the Mediterranean and beyond. The period saw a proliferation of new styles and subjects in the arts.

A prehistoric monument consisting of an arrangement of stone or wooden uprights, usually circular, and often surrounded by a bank or ditch.

The use of differences in size to show relative importance: the larger the figure, the greater his or her importance.

An ancient Egyptian pictographic writing system in which many of the symbols are stylized, recognizable pictures of the things and ideas represented.

A free-standing Christian cross made of stone and often richly decorated used as boundary markers of significant territories or sacred land and as monuments to political power.
Also known as a standing cross.

An Arabic calligraphy script characterized with tall, sloping lines, right-inclining letters, and vertical extensions. It was the most common script used in early Qur'ans, dating back to around 650–700 CE. It is more informal than kufic.

a stock or store of money or valued objects, typically one that is secret or carefully guarded.

anatomically modern humans who evolved from an earlier species of hominids

An arch that forms more than a semicircle, typical of Western Islamic architecture. (Also known as: Moorish arch, keyhole arch).

ethereal soul

a large room in which the roof is supported by rows of columns.

refers to any destruction of images, including the Byzantine Iconoclastic Controversy of the eighth and ninth centuries, although the Byzantines themselves did not use this term.

(Greek for “breakers of images”) refers to those who opposed icons.

The study of the significance and interpretation of the subject matter of art.

(Greek for “image struggle”) was the term the Byzantines used to describe the Iconoclastic Controversy.

(Greek for “lovers of images”), also known as “iconodules” (Greek for “servants of images”), refers to those who supported the use of religious images.

(Greek for “images”) refers to the religious images of Byzantium, made from a variety of media, which depict holy figures and events.

Idealism is presented through ideals in proportions, restraint, order, and balance of the human body in the art of Ancient Greece.

A manuscript decorated with pictures or designs to enhance the text.

Established in 27 BCE at the end of the Roman Republic when Augustus became the sole ruler of Rome.

To mark or cut the surface of an object for decoration.

a motif in which ribbon-like bands are depicted in a way that creates the illusion of being woven over and under each other; interweave.

an order whose capital is characterized by volutes on the capital.

Iron Age Etruria lasted from 900 to 750 B.C.E.

Jade is the term for two different semiprecious minerals: nephrite and jadeite. Jade is usually light green, but it can also be white or yellow. It has been a sought-after material in Asian art since Neolithic times. It was also greatly valued for jewelry in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and in the Maori culture of New Zealand.

An upright post forming the side of an opening, such as a door frame or window frame.

Columns carved on the jambs of a doorway. These may include carved patterns, such as chevrons, spirals, or floral motifs.

In medieval architectural decoration, statues carved on the jambs of a doorway. Jamb statues usually represented biblical figures or church leaders.

The first five Roman emperors who ruled the Roman Empire, including Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.

A Roman general, statesman, consul, and author, who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.

In ancient Egyptian belief, the spirit or life-force of an individual that lives on after death. The hieroglyph for the ka was shoulders and arms, with the arms bent upwards at the elbow, similar to the touchdown signal in American football.

Tiwanaku's temple complex

The first fine, mass-produced and widely-traded pottery produced on Minoan Crete, dating to the Middle Minoan era (1900-1700 BCE).
https://smarthistory.org/kamares-ware-jug/

Also known as K’inich Janaab’ Pakal, who ruled Palenque from 615 to 683 C.E

A large room, often wholly or partly underground, used for ceremonies and councils in Ancestral Puebloan and modern Native American Pueblo cultures.

An elite tomb mound in Japan. Usually keyhole-shaped with several tiers, and were surrounded by moats.

A period in Japan named for the burial mounds of the ruling elite (c. 3rd century–538 CE).

A black powder used as eye makeup.

An Archaic Greek statue of a young woman.

An Archaic Greek statue of a nude standing male figure.

(Greek: Κρατήρας). In ancient Greece, a large, wide-mouthed vessel used for mixing wine and water in the context of the symposium. Pottery kraters were often decorated in the black-figure and red-figure techniques.

Any one of a range of early Arabic calligraphy scripts characterized by angular, rectilinear letter forms and horizontal orientation. Kufic tends to have thicker lines and horizontally elongated calligraphy. It became the standard script for Qur'ans between the mid-eighth and early tenth centuries. Kufic is also known for its use in architectural decoration, and can be rendered in many materials, including wood, metal, and stucco. 

A maze, especially underground or covered.

An Assyrian protective deity in the form of a winged, human-headed bull or lion. Colossal sculpted stone lamassu (pl.) were often placed as guardians flanking city gates and the doorways of Assyrian palaces. When so placed, lamassu sculptures usually have five legs, so they appear to stand when seen from the front and walk when seen from the side.

In Gothic architecture a tall, narrow window with a pointed arch at the top. Lancet windows acquired their name from their resemblance to the blade of a lance.

Spanish for "great spear."

c. 400-323 BCE
In the fourth century, the ideal proportions of the human body were adjusted in art. Figures featured longer torsos and limbs with smaller heads.

Not belonging to the clergy, but associated with them.

principles

Line is the most basic visual element. Lines can be used to define shapes and figures, but also to indicate motion, emotion, and other elements.
-Smarthistory

A syllabary used to write the as-yet-undeciphered Minoan language, and an apparent predecessor to other scripts.

An early form of Classical Greek, the language of the contemporary Mycenaeans of mainland Greece.

an aniconic (non-representational) emblem of Shiva.

In architecture a horizontal block that spans the space between two vertical supports (posts).

The most common method of using molten metal to make hollow, one-of-a-kind sculptures. When heat is applied to the clay mold, the wax layer within melts and forms channels, which the artist then fills with molten metal.

(French: “little moon”). A semicircular architectural space that can be filled with a painting, a mosaic, relief sculpture or a window.

embodying truth, righteousness, justice, and cosmic law
See: https://smarthistory.org/ancient-egypt-an-introduction/

Refer to: https://www.britannica.com/place/Macedonia-ancient-kingdom-Europe
Macedonia, ancient kingdom centred on the plain in the northeastern corner of the Greek peninsula, at the head of the Gulf of Thérmai. In the 4th century BCE it achieved hegemony over Greece and conquered lands as far east as the Indus River, establishing a short-lived empire that introduced the Hellenistic Age of ancient Greek civilization.

Great hall of Hindu temple

In Buddhist art, a symbolic diagram of the cosmos in a circular shape. The creation of a mandala is used as a tool for re-consecrating the earth and its inhabitants.

(Italian: “almond”). A light surrounding the entire body of a religious figure, symbolizing holiness. Mandorlas are usually almond-shaped or elliptical.

A phrase repeated to assist concentration during meditation.

A book or document written by hand. A manuscript in which the text is supplemented by paintings is called an illuminated manuscript.

Minoan pottery decoration that depicts sea creatures with flowing, curvilinear motifs all over the vessel.

Julius Caesar’s right hand man, and a member of the Second Triumvirate. He was eventually defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.

a building or chamber used by the early Christians as a burial place. 2. : a place where the relics of martyrs are preserved.

(Arabic: مصطبة , “stone bench). An ancient Egyptian tomb rectangular in plan with sloping sides and a flat roof. The entire mastaba consists of the underground burial chamber and the rooms above it at ground level, in which offerings were stored.

A freestanding building constructed as a monument and housing the dead body of an important person or the bodies of multiple people.

Archaeological site in Hunan Province, China where the tombs of Lady of Dai and others were recovered in 1972.

A Mesoamerican civilization in modern-day Mexico and Central America. With a population ranging in the millions and scattered throughout a vast region, the Maya were organized into small independent kingdoms or, more accurately, into city states. These city-states dominated the region from c. 1000 BCE till about 900 CE, with a Post-Classic period from 900-1521 CE. The Maya people still occupy this region today.

Maya script is the native writing system of the Maya civilization. The ancient Maya are credited with creating the most advanced Mesoamerican writing system, which was logo-syllabic, meaning that it consists of pictorial symbols or glyphs that represent either entire words or syllables. It is the only pre-Hispanic writing system of Mesoamerica that has been largely deciphered.

Dr. Maya Jiménez, “The Maya, an introduction,” in Smarthistory, August 19, 2016, https://smarthistory.org/maya-intro/.

A large stone used to construct a structure or monument, such as a tomb or a stone circle. The term megalithic describes structures made of such large stones, especially during the Neolithic period in Europe.

A large stone used to construct a structure or monument, such as a tomb or a stone circle. The term megalithic describes structures made of such large stones, especially during the Neolithic period in Europe.

"Middle America" is a historical and cultural region extending from the southern part of North America to the Pacific coast of Central America. It includes central and southern Mexico, all of Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and parts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.

In ancient Greek architecture, the space between two triglyphs in a Doric frieze. Metopes were often decorated with relief sculpture or painted decoration.

Period of unification in Ancient Egyptian history, stretching from the end of the Eleventh Dynasty to the Thirteenth Dynasty, roughly between 2030-1640 BCE.

(Arabic: مِحْرَاب). In a mosque, the niche that indicates the wall oriented toward Mecca.

A tall slender tower, typically part of a mosque, with a balcony from which from which Muslims are called to prayer.

The Bronze Age culture of Crete, called Minoan, after King Minos of Crete from Greek mythology, c. 3000 BCE-1200 BCE.

A monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man.

In painting, drawing, or mosaic, the technique of creating the illusion of three-dimensionality by the use of gradations of value. In sculpture, it is the process of molding a three-dimensional form out of a malleable material, like clay or wax.

A hollow container in which molten metal or hot liquid material (such as wax) is poured then cooled and hardened. A mold can be used to make duplicate objects.

a joint formed by the insertion of a tongue (the tenon) into a hole (the mortise)

A medium in which small, roughly cubic pieces of colored material (usually stone or glass) are embedded in mortar to create patterns or images. The small pieces are called tesserae.

A building used by Muslims for communal worship.

In Hindu and Buddhist art, a hand gesture used to express the meaning of an image of a divinity. While some mudras involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers. Mudras denote specific behaviors, actions or states of mind.

front hall of Hindu temple

A late Bronze Age culture in the Aegean established c. 1600 BCE.

An architectural element typical of early Christian and Byzantine basilicas and churches consisting of the entrance or lobby area, located at the west end of the nave.

A style of art that seeks to represent objects or living beings as they appear to the eye.

The central space of a church. In a basilica church, the nave is usually flanked by aisles.

an extinct species of humans named after the site in which their bones were first discovered—the Neander Valley in Germany; they existed between c. 120,000–35,000 years ago

A large cemetery located outside an ancient city (literally a “city of the dead”).

The striped linen headcloth worn by pharaohs in ancient Egypt. The nemes covered the head and the back of the neck, and had two large flaps hanging down in front of the shoulders.

literally means “New Stone Age,” and dates from the 6th–4th millennium B.C.E.

dates to c. 10,00–3,000 B.C.E, and refers to when humans began to settle into communities, domesticate animals, and grow crops

A period of Ancient Egypt. Dates vary: c. 1550-1070 BCE.
For more: https://smarthistory.org/ancient-egyptian-chronology-historical-framework/

the extinguishment of suffering by escaping the continuous cycle of rebirth called samsara.

Western African culture, located in the current day Nigeria, 700-300 BCE.

Subnational administrative divisions within ancient Egypt.

A tall, four-sided pillar of stone, usually tapering, that terminates in a pyramid. Obelisks were often placed at the entrances of ancient Egyptian temples. They continued to be used as monuments in the Western world in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries.

Grandnephew and adopted heir of Julius Caesar. The first emperor of the Roman Empire.

(Latin: “eye”). In ancient Roman and later architecture, a circular window.

A pointed arch formed with a double curve (ogee) on each side. Ogee arches are common in Gothic architecture.

A period of Ancient Egypt. Dates vary: c. 2686-2150 BCE. This period is sometimes referred to as the pyramid age.
For more: https://smarthistory.org/ancient-egyptian-chronology-historical-framework/

A form of power structure in which power effectively rests with a small number of people. These people could be distinguished by royalty, wealth, family ties, education, corporate, or military control. Such states are often controlled by a few prominent families who typically pass their influence from one generation to the next; however, inheritance is not a necessary condition for the application of this term.

The Olmec culture (c. 1200-400 BCE) was distinct from the Maya, with their own language and traditions, although they likely traded with the earliest Maya settlements to obtain certain luxury materials like jade.
See: https://smarthistory.org/olmec-colossal-heads/

A feminine painting style characterized by rich colors and delicate lines. Images depict courtly life, flowers, private households, and other scenes that were conventionally associated with feminine life during the Kamakura period.

Ox bones or tortoiseshells used by shamans of the Shang dynasty to write requests on them to royal ancestor spirits, asking for guidance on important events or information about the future.
See: https://smarthistory.org/oracle-bone/

"one who is praying or pleading", also orant or orante, as well as lifting up holy hands, is a posture or bodily attitude of prayer, usually standing, with the elbows close to the sides of the body and with the hands outstretched sideways, palms up.

In Greek, Roman and Neoclassical architecture, a stylistic system that governs every aspect of a building’s plan, elevation and decoration. Specific orders, such as the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan and Composite, can be recognized by the proportions of columns and the decorative details of capitals and entablatures.

In ancient Greek art, the period from the late 8th to the end of the 7th century BCE, which followed the Geometric and preceded the Archaic. It is so named because during this time the Greeks were influenced by eastern cultures, especially the Phoenicians, Assyrians and Egyptians, as evidenced by new, eastern motifs assimilated into Greek vase-painting and sculpture.

Japanese "men's paintings." A masculine painting style that uses strong calligraphic brushstrokes and heavily detailed male faces to portray the traditional masculine side of Japanese society. Images often scenes of war, conflict, gods, and other conventional masculine scenes of public life.

A person not adhering to any major or recognized religion; a follower of a pantheistic or nature-worshipping religion.

a Maya city in modern-day southern Mexico established c. 432 CE.

literally means “Old Stone Age,” and dates from c. 2.5 millions years ago–10,000 B.C.E. It predates the Neolithic period

A paper-like material prepared in ancient Egypt from the stems of a marsh plant.

The skin of an animal (sheep, calf or goat) prepared for writing and/or painting. Parchment was used for the production of books in antiquity and the Middle Ages. The finer variety of parchment is called vellum.

Art in caves.

a tomb that consists of one (or more burial chambers) which is covered in earth or stone and that is accessed by a narrow passage made of large stones

A plate, typically made of gold or silver, used for holding the bread during the celebration of the Eucharist in a Christian church.

A group of elite families in ancient Rome.

The Pax Romana (Roman Peace) was a period of relative peace in the Roman Empire for a period of about 200 years—from the time of Augustus until the political instability of the 3rd century C.E.

In classical and Neoclassical architecture, a wide, low-pitched gable at the top of the façade of a building. The pediment is formed by the sloping roof and the horizontal cornice.

See: https://www.worldhistory.org/Peloponnesian_War/
The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies came in two stages: from c. 460 to 446 and from 431 to 404 BCE. With battles at home and abroad, the long and complex conflict was damaging to both sides. Sparta, with financial help from Persia, finally won the conflict by destroying the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami in 405 BCE.

An architectural element in the shape of a triangular segment of a sphere, used to make the transition from a square room to a circular base for a dome.

An ancient city which now lies on the west coast of modern-day Turkey. It was ruled by the Attalid dynasty from 282-133 BCE.
See: https://smarthistory.org/the-pergamon-altar/

a row of columns surrounding the perimeter of a building or an interior courtyard.

According to the Oxford dictionary: the attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something nonhuman, or the representation of an abstract quality in human form.
a figure intended to represent an abstract quality.

the representation of a three-dimensional object or space in a two-dimensional work of art.

a heavy tool with a rounded end, used for crushing and grinding substances such as spices or drugs, typically in a mortar.

(From Greek πέτρα , “stone”, and γλύφειν, “to carve”). An image created by removing part of a rock surface by pecking, abrading, incising or carving. When the the surface of the rock is removed, the lighter rock underneath is exposed, creating the petroglyph. Petroglyphs are found worldwide, and are often associated with prehistoric peoples.

The ruler of Ancient Egypt.
Kings in Egypt were complex intermediaries that straddled the terrestrial and divine realms. They were, obviously, living humans, but upon accession to the throne, they also embodied the eternal office of kingship itself.
See: https://smarthistory.org/ancient-egypt-an-introduction/

In architecture, an upright support for a structure or superstructure such as an arch or bridge.

A shallow, rectangular decorative feature projecting from a wall. A pilaster usually has a capital and a base, like a flattened column.

A general body of free Roman citizens who were part of the lower strata of society.

An arch that features a pointed apex instead of being rounded like a typical Roman arch. Also known as an ogival or Gothic arch.

a city state in ancient Greece, especially as considered in its ideal form for philosophical purposes.

The worship of, or belief in, multiple deities, usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, each with their own specific religions and rituals.

An ancient market and trading town on the Bay of Naples.
Pompeii was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius (a volcano near the Bay of Naples) in 79 C.E. making the town one of the best-preserved examples of a Roman city.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great), a military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, who represented the Roman Senate in a civil war against Julius Caesar.

A grand entrance, door, or gateway, typically leading into a significant public building. It is often adorned with sculpture.

An image of a person, usually drawn, painted, photographed or sculpted from life. A portrait of two people together is called a double portrait. A portrait with more than two people is a group portrait. A portrait created by an artist of herself or himself is a self-portrait.

a construction method in which two vertical bemas (posts) support a horizontal beam (lintel)

the practice of circumambulating around a sacred object or space.

a period before the invention of writing

: an account or record (such as a first-hand account, a contemporaneous news report, a photograph, or an audio or video recording) reflecting direct experience of a thing (such as an historical event) that is being researched or studied

Proportion refers to the relationship of parts of a body or form to one another and of the parts to the whole, for example, the size of the head of a figure in relation to the entire body.
-Smarthistory

A book of psalms.

A multistoried Great House shaped like a D in Chaco Canyon containing between 600-800 rooms and kivas.

A series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, from 264 BCE to 146 BCE, that resulted in the complete destruction of Carthage.

a combination of raised platforms and courtyards

The monumental gateway of an ancient Egyptian temple, consisting of two tapering towers flanking the entrance.

The second largest structure at Teotihuacan.

See: https://smarthistory.org/teotihuacan-2/
The Pyramid of the Sun, which reaches a height of over 200 feet, was the tallest structure in the Americas at the time. Built over a cave, it is unclear who or what the pyramid was built to commemorate, although art historians have suggested that creation mythology may be at issue, since Aztec and Maya sources refer to caves as places of origin and fertility.

the vital force and substance of which man and the universe are made

(Arabic: قِبْلَة , “direction”). The direction to the Kaaba in Mecca, towards which Muslims are required to pray. Most mosques contain a niche, the mihrab, that indicates the qibla.

A four-lobed design, often used in architectural ornament and tracery.

(Arabic: القرآن , “recitation”). The sacred book of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. The Qur’an is divided into 114 chapters (suwar) of various lengths. (Also spelled Koran).

Sculpture in which the images have been carved or modeled on a surface so as to stand out from the background. Because it cannot be viewed from all sides, relief sculpture is distinct from sculpture in the round. Relief sculpture can be described as high relief or low relief, depending on how far it projects from its background.

The name that the Etruscans used to identify themselves, according the the Greek historian Halicarnassus.

The period of French

Gothic

architecture between c. 1240 and 1350, characterized by a shift in focus away from the High

Gothic

mode of great scale toward a greater concern for two dimensional surfaces and the repetition of decorative motifs at different scales.

A technique of ancient Greek pot-painting in which the black background is painted with slip and figures are left the natural reddish color of the clay. Details are added with fine lines of slip before firing in a kiln.

A horizontal band containing decorative or narrative imagery. The term is normally used when a work of art is organized in multiple horizontal bands.

A body part or object associated with a religious figure, such as Christ, the Christian saints, or the Buddha.

Sculpture in which the images have been carved or modeled on a surface so as to stand out from the background. Because it cannot be viewed from all sides, relief sculpture is distinct from sculpture in the round. Relief sculpture can be described as high relief or low relief, depending on how far it projects from its background.

An ornate container for a relic or relics.

In metalworking, a technique for creating patterns or images in relief by hammering or pressing from the reverse side of a metal sheet.

A molded arch of masonry that forms part of the framework supporting a vault. Also see rib vault.

A vault in which the masonry is supported by a framework or “skeleton” of interlocking stone ribs.

a work or art or structure that is carved from solid stone in its original location.

Between the period of Kings and Emperors, there was the Roman Republic, whose most important political institution was the Senate.

An Italic civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BCE. Located along the Mediterranean Sea, and centered on one city, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world.

The founder of Rome, and one of two twin sons of Rhea Silvia and Mars.

A stained glass circular window with a radiating design suggestive of a rose.

Runes are letter forms from a family of alphabets used to write Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon and other Germanic languages before the adoption the Latin alphabet in Northern Europe, often a result of Christianization. Runestones are stones with runes carved onto them.

a Sanskrit word, literally means a “round” or a “cycle.” In the ancient Indian worldview this means the endless cycle of rebirth and death—there is no beginning and no end. This endless cycle is governed by karma (causality).

Greek religious sites which were the homes of the gods. They were usually located at places considered to be associated with the sense of divine presence.
They featured cult images, temples, treasuries, and other items related to the gods.

A coffin, usually of stone, often decorated with relief sculpture.

The proportional relationship between an object represented in an artwork and the real object. A figure drawn at one-quarter scale means all parts of the body are drawn one quarter the size of the original.

a freestanding three-dimensional sculpture that can be viewed from multiple angles

a kind of priest or healer with powers involving the ability to communicate with spirits of other worlds

The Shang is the earliest dynasty in Chinese history that can be verified through written and archaeological evidence. Established around 1600 B.C.E., it was centered in north China along the Yellow River valley, the so-called cradle of Chinese civilization. This area was ruled by one centralized government—the Shang royal family. The Shang kings ruled the kingdom from the capital city. They moved their capital many times before finally settling near the modern city of Anyang, where they stayed from about 1300 B.C.E. to 1050 B.C.E.
See: https://smarthistory.org/shang-dynasty-introduction/

Chinese landscape painting

A flat, enclosed area of an artwork created through lines, textures, or colors.

the lateral aisles of a building (such as a basilica or church) used as passageways that are usually separated from the nave by columns or piers.

“bones of the ancestors.”

A small hole in the kiva floor that is used for ceremonial purposes.

A period of Chinese history ruled by the Song rulers, 960-1279 CE.

The Song dynasty was divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960–1126), the physically larger empire, and the Southern Song (1127–1279).
See: https://smarthistory.org/song-dynasty-intro/

Space is used to refer both to depth—real or represented—and also to the general surface area within a work of art.
-Smarthistory

A tapering conical or pyramidal structure that sits atop the roof of a building or tower, commonly found on church steeples. The base can be circular, square, or polygonal.

Spolia refers to the reuse of building stone or decorative sculpture on a new monument.

Decorative glass consisting of colored pieces fastened together, usually with strips of lead, to form an image or design. Stained glass is frequently used in church windows.

A type of medieval wooden Christian church in north-western Europe. It uses timber framing posts called stafr or stav.

An upright stone slab decorated with inscriptions or relief sculpture. Stelae (pl.) were used as commemorative monuments or tomb markers.

An upright stone slab decorated with inscriptions or relief sculpture. Stelae (pl.) were used as commemorative monuments or tomb markers.

an architectural monument that uses receding sized stacked platforms to create a shape similar to a geometric pyramid.

Ceramics fired at high temperature to produce a stone-like hardness and density. It results in a non-porous object (ublike terracotta or earthenware).

a narrow waterway that runs between Spain and Portugal to the north and Morocco to the south, separates Europe from Africa.

In Buddhist architecture, a monument made of earth and/or stone and containing sacred relics.

The apex or top[ of a HIndu temple. It sits above the vimana.

Sunken relief is a technique of relief sculpture in which figures or images are carved in low relief, but set within a sunken area, so that the relief never rises beyond the original flat surface. This technique is largely restricted to ancient Egypt, where it became common in the Amarna period and later.

In ancient Graeco-Roman culture, a drinking party.

The building where a Jewish congregation meets for worship and religious instruction.

Describing imagery or other creative expression that blends two or more religions or cultures.

A sloping wall, talud, that is surmounted by a vertical wall, tablero.

A textile with pictures or patterns woven into it, usually hung on a wall for decoration. Tapestries are traditionally woven on vertical looms.

often sand or other added materials, temper reduces the elasticity of clay (how much it shrinks) and helps to avoid cracking during the firing process

A painting medium made by blending egg yolks with water and pigments.

Maya funerary pyramid of King Pakal in Palenque.

An ancient city about 25 miles northwest of modern-day Mexico City. By the 6th century it was the first large metropolis of the Americas with about 125,000-200,000 inhabitants.
See: https://smarthistory.org/teotihuacan-2/

Fired, unglazed clay, used for sculpture. Also spelled terra cotta.

Small, roughly cubic pieces of cut stone or glass used in making mosaics.

Texture is the feeling of a surface, real or represented. This might refer to the roughness or smoothness of actual objects and art media, or to the illusion of these properties.
-Smarthistory

A system of government in which priests rule in the name of a god.
A form of government in which a deity is officially recognized as the civil ruler, and official policy is governed by officials regarded as divinely guided, or is pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religion or religious group.

a supernatural creature that is part animal and part human

See: https://smarthistory.org/required-works-for-ap/global-prehistory-overview-guide/glossary-for-ap-content-area-1-global-prehistory/

a circular, vaulted structure, often a tomb or a temple.

A round, stone-built tomb with a corbeled dome, characteristic of royal burials in the Mycenaean Greek civilization. Also known as a beehive tomb. A tholos tomb was approached via a passage known as a dromos.

(200–1100 C.E.) was centered in the Lake Titicaca region of present-day southern Peru and western Bolivia, although its cultural influence spread into Bolivia and parts of Chile and Argentina. Tiwanaku’s main city center boasted a population of 25,000–40,000 at its peak.

See: https://smarthistory.org/tiwanaku-an-introduction/

In Buddhist and Hindu architecture, an ornamented gateway leading to a temple or stupa.

Ornamental stonework that supports the glass in a Gothic window.

An emperor of Rome (r. 98-117 CE).

In a cruciform church, the part of the building oriented perpendicular to the nave.

A design of three rounded lobes like a clover leaf, often used in architectural ornament and tracery.

A shallow, arched gallery within the thickness of an inner wall, above the nave of a church or cathedral.

Two upright megaliths supporting a horizontal lintel

A monument in the form of an arch with one or more barrel-vaulted passages. The triumphal arch was invented by the ancient Romans and used to commemorate military victories.

An artificial mound, especially a mound built over a tomb (pl. tumuli).

A triangular space between the sides of a pediment; the space within an arch and above a lintel or a subordinate arch, spanning the opening below the arch.

known as the first dynasty of the Islamic world.
See: https://smarthistory.org/umayyads/

A representation of a rearing cobra as an emblem of sovereignty, worn on the headdresses of ancient Egyptian rulers. In Egyptian mythology, the cobra is associated with the goddess Wadjet.

A technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment that guides and ensures the orderly development of settlements and communities.

A whorl of hair on the forehead between the eyebrows, one of the lakshanas (auspicious marks) of the Buddha.

A knot of hair on the top of the head, one of the lakshanas of the Buddha.

vehicle

stone fence that surrounds the stupa, separating the sacred and mundane spaces.

The skin of a young animal (lamb, calf or kid) prepared for writing and/or painting. Used for the production of books in antiquity and the Middle Ages. The coarser variety, made from the skin of an older animal, is called parchment.

From the Latin verus (“true”), a style of portraiture that attempts to depict a true likeness of an individual. Etruscan and Roman sculptors working in the veristic style faithfully represented their subjects’ imperfections, such as wrinkles, warts, and baldness.

Late 8th century through the 11th century, people from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden employed their maritime skills to journey around the globe.

The skill of describing what you see and analyzing an artwork’s form.

A term describing objects offered to a god or goddess at a sacred place, such as a temple. Common types of votive offerings include statues, figurines, vessels, weapons, crowns, animals, foodstuffs and candles.

A term describing objects offered to a god or goddess at a sacred place, such as a temple. Common types of votive offerings include statues, figurines, vessels, weapons, crowns, animals, foodstuffs and candles.

A wedge-shaped stone block used to build an arch.

Administrative divisions in Egypt.

Olmec part-man, part-jaguar creature identified by its human-like form combined with a down-turned mouth, an elongated feline snout and a cleft head.

The Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.–220 C.E.) reunified China after the civil war following the death of Qin Shihuangdi in 210 B.C.E. It is divided into two periods: the Former (or Western) Han, when Chang’an (present-day Xi’an) was its capital; and the Later (or Eastern) Han, which ruled from Luoyang—230 miles east of Xi’an.
See: https://smarthistory.org/han-dynasty-intro/

A style of sculpture in Greek art where the clothing appears transparent and clings to the body, in the manner of wet cloth, in order to keep a figure (usually a woman) clothed and modest while allowing the shape and details of her body to show through the clothing.

Maya underworld

In Hindu and Buddhist art, auspicious female nature spirits, symbolic of fertility and abundance. Yakshi are typically depicted as beautiful and voluptuous, with wide hips, narrow waists, and exaggerated, spherical breasts. Male versions of these spirits are called yaksha.

In Buddhist architecture, the spire that rises from the apex of the dome of a stupa. The yasti symbolizes the axis of the universe. It is enclosed by a harmika and adorned with chatras.

In ancient Mesopotamia, a stepped tower of earthen materials, often supporting a temple or shrine.

Having an animal-like form; a term describing works of art based on animal shapes.