Chapter Seven: Community Violence and Violence Prevention
Overview
The focus of this chapter is violence and violence prevention in the community. Violence is a critical health problem that has become pervasive throughout the United States. The World Health Organization (WHO) Violence Prevention Alliance has defined violence as “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation” (WHO, 2021).
Learning Objectives
- Define violence
- Recognize the prevalence of violence
- Understand the difference between domestic violence and intimate partner violence (IPV)
- Indicate the consequences that violence has on the health of patients and families
- Identify screening and intervention tools for violence and abuse
- Describe human sex trafficking and implications for health care providers
- Explain the global, national, and regional incidence of gun violence
Key Terms
- gender-based violence
- domestic violence
- intimate partner violence
- perpetrate
- violence
Content in this chapter was adapted from “Violence Prevention” from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2021a).
Introduction
Public health nurses have a role in preventing violence and caring for individuals and families who have experienced violent acts. Violence affects millions of people, and their families, schools, and communities every year. Violence can cause significant physical injuries and mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Living in a community experiencing violence is also associated with an increased risk of developing chronic diseases. Concerns about violence may prevent some people from engaging in healthy behaviors, such as walking, bicycling, using parks and recreational spaces, and accessing healthy food outlets (CDC, 2022e).
Violence
Violence is not an individual issue but a societal and global concern. Social justice cannot be ensured as long as the threat of violence exists. According to Healthy People 2030, objectives to address crime and violence include reducing:
- The rates of minors and young adults committing violent crimes
- Nonfatal physical assault injuries
- Firearm-related deaths
- Adolescent sexual violence by anyone
- Sexual or physical teen dating violence
- Bullying of lesbian, gay, or bisexual high school students
Domestic and Intimate Partner Violence
The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (NCADV) defined domestic violence as “the willful intimidation, physical assault, battery, sexual assault, and/or other abusive behavior as part of a systematic pattern of power and control perpetrated by one intimate partner against another. It includes physical violence, sexual violence, threats, economic abuse, and emotional/psychological abuse. The frequency and severity of domestic violence vary dramatically” (WHO, 2021). Furthermore, domestic violence does not discriminate (Figure 7.1). More than 80 million people in the United States have experienced IPV in their lifetime (California Firearm Violence Research Center, 2022).
Although the terms domestic violence and intimate partner violence are sometimes used interchangeably, the distinction exists in the sense that domestic violence can occur between a parent and child, siblings, or roommates. Intimate partner violence occurs between romantic partners who may or may not be living together in the same household (CDC, 2024e).
Intimate partner violence can exist in all relationships and at every level, including between those who are married or are dating, living together, or encountering each other after the relationship has ended (Kang et al., 2017). Intimate partner violence is a persistent problem (Figure 7.2). Approximately two in five women and nearly one in four men have experienced contact sexual violence, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner during their lifetime and have reported some form of IPV-related impact. Over 61 million women and 53 million men have experienced psychological aggression by an intimate partner in their lifetime (CDC, 2024e). Every year, 3–4 million women in the United States. are abused, and 1,500–1,600 are killed by their abusers. In Virginia, 33.6% of women and 28.6% of men experience intimate partner physical violence, intimate partner rape, and/or intimate partner stalking in their lifetimes (Domestic Violence, 2024).
Long Description for Figure 7.2
14 percent of women and 5 percent of men report having been stalked by an intimate partner. About one-third and one-fourth of women and men report having experienced severe physical violence from an intimate partner in their lifetime, About one-fifth and one-thirteenth have experienced contact sexual violence by an intimate partner.
To illustrate a snapshot in time of violence, read the statistics presented in the following paragraphs. Keep in mind that the numbers represent real people experiencing violent acts aimed at harming or killing them.
On just one day in 2020, 84% of the domestic violence programs in Virginia served 1,344 persons who experienced domestic violence and received 606 hotline calls. On that same day, there were 109 requests for services that went unmet because of a lack of resources (NCADV, 2021). Imagine what it is like to experience severe violence and not be able to get help. Nurses should be involved in promoting legislation that protects people against violence and provides avenues for them to seek safety.
In 2020, over half of the 541 homicides in Virginia were committed by an intimate partner. Almost 70% of the Virginia intimate partner homicides involved firearm use. Statistical findings for Virginia reveal that more than 30% of all violent crimes, 11% of forcible sex offenses, and 61% of abductions were committed by an intimate partner (NCADV, 2021).
In the state of Virginia, police estimates indicate that there are nearly 31,000 active protective orders on file at any given time (NCADV, 2021). The statistics are staggering. Because of IPV prevalence, community health nurses must routinely screen for risk factors for perpetrating violence, perceptions of home safety, and relationship characteristics that indicate risk for interpersonal violence. Nurses are in a position to offer resources for counseling, healthy relationship building, and resources for escape if needed.
Risk factors for experiencing IPV are considered from the perspective of an individual in the context of relationship, community, and societal factors. Examples of risk factors include low self-esteem, aggressive or delinquent behavior as a youth, witnessing violence between parents as a child, communities with high unemployment rates, and societal income inequality (CDC, 2024). Intimate partner violence often begins early and continues throughout the lifespan. When IPV occurs in adolescence, it is called teen dating violence. Teen dating violence affects millions of U.S. teens each year. Approximately 11 million women and 5 million men who reported experiencing contact sexual violence, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner in their lifetime said that they first experienced these forms of violence before age 18 (CDC, 2024e). Data from CDC’s Youth Risk Behavior Survey in 2019 indicated that among U.S. high school students who reported dating during the 12 months before the survey, about one in 12 experienced physical dating violence. About one in 12 of the surveyed high school students experienced sexual dating violence (CDC, 2024e).
Intimate partner violence is preventable. The number of factors may increase or decrease the risk of perpetrating and experiencing IPV. Nurses can play a role in helping to reduce and prevent IPV by doing the following:
- Understanding the risk factors for experiencing violence and identifying protective factors.
- Promoting healthy, respectful, and nonviolent relationships (see Table 7.1). Nurses can model this through therapeutic communication and through sharing resources that help individuals and couples develop healthy and safe relationships (see additional resources at the end of this chapter).
- Seeking additional training to understand the shared risk and protective factors. Since addressing and preventing one form of violence may have an impact on preventing other forms of violence, nurses can significantly influence violence reduction and prevention.
- Referring persons experiencing IPV to the domestic violence website and hotline are among other resources that should be offered to persons in this situation. The domestic violence hotline is a shareable resource for people who are affected by IPV (National Domestic Violence Hotline, 2022).
|
Healthy Relationships |
Unhealthy Relationships |
|---|---|
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Equality You make decisions together. |
Control One of you makes all the decisions and is demanding. |
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Honesty You can share your feelings and thoughts with each other. |
Dishonesty One of you lies and hides things from the other. |
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Physical safety You feel safe with each other. You are not scared of getting hurt. |
Physical abuse One of you hits, slaps, grabs, or shoves the other person. |
|
Respect You respect each other’s opinions, friends, and interests. |
Disrespect One of you makes fun of the other’s feelings, thoughts, and opinions. |
|
Comfort You feel great being yourself, and you are comfortable saying “I am sorry.” |
Discomfort One of you might make threats like “I will break up with you if. . . ” |
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Sexual respectfulness You never force each other to do things you are uncomfortable with. |
Sexual abuse One of you pressures the other or forces sexual activities the other does not want to do. |
|
Independence You have friends and hobbies outside your relationship. |
Dependence One of you makes threats to do something drastic if the relationship ends. |
|
Humor You have fun in the relationship. |
Hostility One of you is mean to the other. |
An in-depth assessment of the person suffering IPV must be undertaken and a safety plan developed. Establishing a plan does not necessarily mean that the person experiencing the violence is willing and able to leave at that time. The goal is to support the patient’s decision, offering support, resources, and contact information if desired.
Protective Factors for Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration
Nurses can promote protective factors that prevent IPV by implementing community programs that build healthy relationships and systems of support.
Relationship Factors
The following are relationship factors community and public health nurses need to consider when addressing the needs of individuals at risk for IPV:
- Strong social support networks and stable, positive relationships with others
- Support groups for single, divorced, or separated individuals at risk for IPV
- Screening and referral of individuals acknowledging significant relationship discord
- Screening and referral of individuals expressing impactful relationship satisfaction
- Identification and referral of individuals demonstrating attachment disorders from their adult partners
- Referral of individuals expressing significant emotions of anger and jealousy toward their partner (Capaldi et al., 2012)
Referral resources can be found through Additional Resources | Intimated Partner Violence|Violence Prevention|Injury Center | CDC.
Community Factors
Nurses must be aware of community factors that may help them serve the needs of persons at risk for IVP. Community health nurses should consider these factors:
- Neighborhood collective efficacy (i.e., residents feel connected to each other and are involved in the community)
- Coordination of resources and services among community agencies
- Access to safe, stable housing
- Access to medical care and mental health services
- Access to economic and financial help
Lgbtqia+ Violence
Homophobia, stigma, and discrimination increase the chance for individuals of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning/queer, intersex, and asexual (LGBTQIA+) community to experience violence. Violence can include behaviors such as bullying, teasing, harassment, physical assault, IPV, and suicide-related behaviors. Several aspects of IPV can be unique to the LGBTQIA+ community (CDC, 2016). “Outing” or threatening to reveal one partner’s sexual orientation or gender identity may be used as a tool of abuse in violent relationships and may also be a barrier that reduces the likelihood of help-seeking for the abuse. Prior experiences of physical or psychological trauma, such as bullying and hate crime, may make persons who are LGBTQIA+ less likely to seek help (NCADV, 2018).
Types of Domestic Violence Affecting the LGBTQIA+ Community
Consider the following statistics:
- 20% of victims have experienced some form of physical violence
- 16% have been victims of threats and intimidation
- 15% have been verbally harassed
- 4% of survivors have experienced sexual violence
- 11% of intimate violence cases reported in the 2015 report by the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence Programs (NCADVP) involved a weapon (NCAVP, 2016)
The 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey found that more than half (54%) of transgender and non-binary respondents experienced IPV in their lifetimes. Nurses must understand that the community of LGBTQIA+ can experience bias from health care and law enforcement (CDC, 2022a). Many times, persons who are not cisgender are discouraged from seeking help for IPV.
For many LGBTQIA+ people, IPV often begins in youth or young adulthood. One in five (19%) lesbian, gay, and bisexual high school–aged students has said they have been forced to have sex, compared with 6% of straight students (CDC, 2019). Another study found that nearly one in four (24%) transgender high school–aged students said they have been forced to have sex, as well as 15% of their cisgender peers. In addition, lesbian, gay, and bisexual high school–aged students report elevated rates of physical (13%) and sexual (16%) dating violence, compared with the rates of physical (7%) and sexual (7%) dating violence reported by their straight peers (CDC, 2019; Johns et al., 2019). Transgender students also report high levels of physical (26%) and sexual (23%) dating violence, compared with the rates of physical (15%) and sexual (16%) dating violence reported by their cisgender peers (Human Rights Campaign Foundation, 2022; Johns et al., 2019).
Nurses must always ensure a safe environment for patients in all settings and provide unbiased trauma-informed care (Santoniccolo et al., 2021). Unfortunately, persons who are LGBTQIA+ experience health inequities and discrimination in the health care system. Nurses can implement diverse interventions to reduce these disparities (Medina-Martínez et al., 2021). Nursing efforts to improve the health of the LGBTQIA+ population include these initiatives:
- Training health professionals to appropriately inquire and support clients’ sexual orientation and gender identity to promote regular use of health care services
- Training health professionals and students regarding culturally competent care
- Providing supportive social services to reduce suicide and homelessness among youth
- Curbing sexually transmitted infections and HIV transmission. (Open RN 2022; HealthyPeople.gov, 2022; National Network to End Domestic Violence, 2021; Quinn et al., 2015; Scheer & Baams, 2021)
Violence Against Children
Violence is a major public health and human rights concern. An estimated 1 billion children—half of all the children in the world—are victims of violence every year.
Children who experience violence have higher risks for health and social problems, such as chronic disease, HIV, mental health issues, substance misuse, and reproductive health problems. Violence also leads to continued cycles of violence, because young people who experience violence are more likely to perpetrate violence against others later in life (CDC, 2024a).
Child abuse and neglect are common. At least one in seven children has experienced child abuse or neglect in the past year in the United States. This is likely an underestimate because many cases are unreported. In 2020 in the United States, 1,750 children died of abuse and neglect.
Children living in poverty experience more abuse and neglect than do those in households that are not impoverished. Experiencing poverty can place a lot of stress on families, which may increase the risk for child abuse and neglect. Rates of child abuse and neglect are five times higher for children in families with low socioeconomic status than for those in higher status families.
Child maltreatment is costly. In the United States, the total lifetime economic burden associated with child abuse and neglect was about $592 billion in 2018. This economic burden rivals the cost of other high-profile public health problems, such as heart disease and diabetes (CDC, 2024c).
Long-term behavioral impacts of violence on children include aggressive and antisocial behavior, substance abuse, risky sexual behavior, and criminal behavior. Despite these grave physical and mental health consequences, most children who have been victimized by violent acts never seek or receive help to recover. Children who grow up with violence are more likely to reenact it as young adults and caregivers, creating a new generation of persons who have been abused (UNICEF, 2020).
School violence can seriously affect children’s psychological and physical health. Children who are subjected to violence may experience physical injury, sexually transmitted infections, depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and suicidal thoughts. They may also begin to exhibit risky, aggressive, and antisocial behavior. Children who grow up around violence, compared with those who do not, have a greater chance of replicating it for a new generation of persons to be victimized. At its most extreme, violence in and around schools can be deadly. School often becomes the front line for the millions of children and adolescents living in conflict-affected areas. Violence in school can reduce school attendance, lower academic performance, and increase dropout rates. This result of school violence has devastating consequences for the success and prosperity of children, their families, and entire communities (UNICEF, 2021).
Strategies to Combat Childhood Violence
Community health nurses promote supportive environments that can, in turn, help children grow up to be healthy and productive citizens so that they can, in turn, build stronger and safer families and communities for their children.
The CDC has recommended Essentials for Childhood to foster the positive development of children and families and, specifically, prevent all forms of child abuse and neglect. While each individual goal is important to community health, the four goals together are more likely to build a comprehensive foundation of safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments for children. Community health nurse can promote the following strategies:
Goal 1: Raise awareness and commitment to promote safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments and prevent child abuse and neglect
- Adopt the vision of “assuring safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments to protect children from child abuse and neglect”
- Raise awareness in support of the vision
- Partner with others to unite behind the vision
Goal 2: Use data to inform actions
- Build a partnership to gather and synthesize relevant data
- Take stock of existing data
- Identify and fill critical data gaps
- Use the data to support other action steps
Goal 3: Create the context for healthy children and families through norms change and programs
- Promote the community norm that we all share responsibility for the well-being of children
- Promote positive community norms about parenting programs and acceptable parenting behaviors
- Implement evidence-based programs for parents and caregivers
Goal 4: Create the context for healthy children and families through policies
- Identify and assess which policies may positively affect the lives of children and families in your community
- Provide decision-makers and community leaders with information on the benefits of evidence-based strategies and rigorous evaluation (CDC, 2021)
Children who experience violence are at risk for long-term physical, behavioral, and mental health problems. Strategies to protect children from violence can help improve their health and well-being later in life (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2022). While child abuse and neglect are significant public health problems, they are also preventable (CDC, 2021).
Adverse Childhood Experiences
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) include child abuse and neglect but also encompass household events that children may experience as traumatic (Figure 7.3). The CDC–Kaiser Permanente ACE study is one of the largest investigations of childhood abuse, neglect, and household challenges. The study clearly linked ACEs and later-life health and well-being. The greater the culmination of ACEs, the poorer the health outcomes later in life (Felitti et al., 1998).
Long Description for Figure 7.3
Abuse: physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. Neglect: physical and emotional neglect. Household dysfunction: incarcerated relatives, divorce, mother being treated violently, substance abuse, and mental illness.
The ACE study was conducted at Kaiser Permanente from 1995 to 1997 with two waves of data collection (Kaiser Permanente, 2021). The study indicated that the experience of 10 events before age 18, further classified under three larger categories of abuse, neglect, and household dysfunctions, influence health and well-being throughout the lifespan (Felitti et al., 1998).
Why Are ACEs a Problem?
Adverse childhood experiences are violations of the safety and well-being of children. They also indicate a family structure in which children and adults are suffering. Moreover, the more ACEs a person experiences, the higher their risk for health-related issues such as these:
- Alcoholism
- Unplanned teen pregnancy
- Depression
- Diabetes
- Heart disease
- IPV
- Suicide
- Eating disorders
- Drug abuse
- Sexually transmitted infections
Since the prevention of ACEs is important to the well-being of a vulnerable population (children) and to families as well as to public health, the CDC has developed some research-based strategies to prevent ACEs and mitigate their impacts. Table 7.2 outlines strategies and approaches that public health nurses can facilitate through working with families and communities.
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Preventing Adverse Childhood Experiences |
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|---|---|
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Strategy |
Approach |
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Strengthen economic support to families |
|
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Promote social norms that protect against violence and adversity |
|
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Ensure a strong start for children |
|
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Teach skills |
|
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Connect youth to caring adults and activities |
|
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Intervene to lessen immediate and long-term harms |
|
Human Trafficking
Human trafficking is also called “modern-day slavery” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2020). It involves the exploitation of people through force, coercion, threat, and deception and includes human rights abuses. The action, means, and purposes model (AMP) describes the definition of human trafficking in the United States, as outlined by the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (Figure 7.4). For something to be considered human trafficking, at least one item from each circle shown in Figure 7.4 must be present; however, means is not necessary if the person being trafficked is a minor (National Human Trafficking Hotline, 2014).
Long Description for Figure 7.4
Actions: recruiting, harboring, transporting, providing, obtaining, patronizing soliciting and advertising, sex trafficking only. Means: force, fraud and coercion. Note, Means is not needed if the trafficked person is a minor. Purpose: commercial sex, exploitation, and forced labor.
Human trafficking is a human rights violation that denies individuals their basic freedoms and dignity. Human trafficking is underreported, underrecognized, and underprosecuted. Currently, there is no national requirement for nurses to engage in annual or continuing education in assessing or reporting human trafficking. This is extremely concerning because 87% of trafficked persons said that while in captivity they had interactions with a health care professional but their captivity went completely undetected (Farella, 2016). House Bill 2282 (February 24, 2017) mandated that the Department of Education develop guidelines for training school personnel. This bill includes the community health role of school nurses.
Nursing Assessment
Nurses can combat human trafficking through screening, communication, documentation, and protection.
Screening
- Establish rapport through therapeutic communication, trust building, and trauma-informed care
- Ensure comfort
- Use an established short-form screening tool
- For example, the Vera Institute of Justice screening tool: human-trafficking-identification-tool-and-user-guidelines.pdf (vera.org)
- Remember that trafficked people do not self-identify (Edmonson et al., 2017)
Communication
- Keep the lines of communication open.
- Understand that many trafficked persons believe that they will be prosecuted. However, U.S. law states that any crimes that occur during captivity are not considered criminal acts by the captive, only by the offender.
- Communicate early and often with your colleagues and manager to enlist help.
Documentation
Document all the following in detail about the person who has been trafficked:
- Signs of physical abuse
- Signs of psychological abuse
- The trafficked person’s “story”
- Any laboratory results or assessments that support what your patient is telling you
Also document the following behaviors of the offender if they are present:
- Not letting the patient speak for themself
- Holding all currency and important documents
- Not allowing the trafficked person to be alone with the health care provider
Protection
Because one in every three trafficked persons is a child, nurses must understand reporting mandates. Nurses are legally mandated to report any suspicion of trafficking cases involving people under 18. However, there is no reporting mandate for adults who are trafficked. Nonetheless, nurses can still protect their patients by doing the following:
- Establishing an anonymous/protected status in clinics, primary care, and acute care settings
- Contacting local police
- Calling the National Trafficking Hotline at 1-888-373-7888
- Involving case management for after-care resources
Gun Violence
Gun violence is a serious public health problem that affects the health and safety of Americans. Important gaps remain in our knowledge about the problem and ways to prevent it. Addressing these gaps is an important step toward keeping individuals, families, schools, and communities safe from firearm violence and its consequences.
A firearm injury is a gunshot wound or penetrating injury from a weapon that uses a powder charge to fire a projectile. Weapons that use a power charge include handguns, rifles, and shotguns. Injuries from air- and gas-powered guns, BB guns, and pellet guns are not considered firearm injuries because these types of guns do not use a powder charge to fire a projectile.
Firearm injuries are a serious public health problem. In 2020, there were 45,222 firearm-related deaths in the United States—that is about 124 people dying from a firearm-related injury each day. More than half of firearm-related deaths were suicides, and more than four out of every 10 were firearm homicides.
More people suffer nonfatal firearm-related injuries than die. More than seven out of every 10 medically treated firearm injuries are from firearm-related assaults. Nearly two out of every 10 are from unintentional firearm injuries. There are few intentionally self-inflicted firearm-related injuries seen in hospital emergency departments. Most people who use a firearm in a suicide attempt die from their injury.
Firearm injuries affect people in all stages of life. In 2020, firearm-related injuries were among the five leading causes of death for people aged 1 to 44 in the United States.
Some groups have higher rates of firearm injury than others. Men account for 86% of all victims of firearm death and 87% of nonfatal firearm injuries. Rates of firearm violence also vary by age and race/ethnicity. Firearm homicide rates are highest among teens and young adults 15–34 years of age and among Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, and Hispanic or Latino populations. Firearm suicide rates are highest among adults 75 years of age and older and among American Indian or Alaska Native and non-Hispanic White populations (CDC, 2024d).
Virginia ranked 34th among the states for gun violence deaths, with a rate of 13.4 per 100,000 total population, which equates to 1,174 individuals (CDC, 2022b, 2022d). Figure 7.5 depicts a concentration of gun violence incidents in the eastern region, with Virginia visible as one area affected by this epidemic.
In contrast to the rising levels of gun violence in America, Europe has seen a decline in the homicide rate by 63% since 2002 and by 38% since 1990. The rate in Asia has fallen by 36% since 1990. There are also indications, however, that homicide is underreported in the official statistics in Pacific countries. Firearm suicide rates continued to remain high in the United States (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2018).
A comprehensive approach is needed to help reduce firearm-related deaths. Strategies that focus on underlying conditions can reduce disparities and the risk for violence while also strengthening protective factors at the individual, family, and community levels. Some actions can have a more immediate impact on preventing violence, and others can be long-term solutions. Prevention is a primary goal. Working with partners, including policymakers; local, state, territorial, and tribal governments; health, education, justice, and social service agencies; businesses; and community organizations can help ensure that local needs are met (CDC, 2022d; WHO, 2014). Gun violence intervention and prevention programs avert interpersonal violence by working with a range of community stakeholders to provide support and intervention to those at the highest risk of being persons who have been victimized and/or perpetrators of violence.
As one key effort to address the issue of gun violence in Virginia, the Virginia Department of Criminal Justice Services is stewarding a grant called the Virginia Community-Based Gun Violence Intervention (CBGVI) Grant. The primary purpose of this initiative is to support the implementation of strategies that will result in reducing gun violence and gang activity in Virginia communities.
The Nurse’s Role in Preventing Violence
There are many types of violence affecting individuals, communities, and populations. Community health nurses play an important role in preventing violence. Regardless of the type of violence, nurses can implement the public health approach to violence prevention, as shown in Figure 7.6. The process begins by identifying the problem, with emphasis placed on the identification of risk and protective factors. If the risk factors are identified early and prevention strategies put in place and communicated to the targeted areas, violence can be prevented (CDC, 2022c).
CDC – Fast Facts: Preventing Teen Dating Violence
CDC – Injury and Violence Prevention [Video Playlist]
CDC, VetoViolence (tools and training, prevention information, ACEs resources)
Disarm Domestic Violence (federal and state legislation and data)
TED Talk – How childhood trauma affects health across a lifetime (Nadine Burke Harris) [Video]
Resources for Patients/the Community
211 (information about local resources and services)
Commonhelp.org (help with applying for assistance or health care)
National Domestic Violence Hotline (also available at 1-800-799-SAFE)
Virginia Department of Housing and Community Development – Housing Assistance
References
California Firearm Violence Research Center. (2022). BulletPoints: Intimate partner violence. BulletPoints Project. www.bulletpointsproject.org/intimate-partner-violence/
Capaldi, D. M., Knoble, N. B., Shortt, J. W., & Kim, H. K. (2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 231–280. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Stigma and discrimination. https://web.archive.org/web/20230204105831/https://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/stigma-and-discrimination.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Youth risk behavior survey: Data summary and trends report 2009–2019. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/reports_factsheet_publications.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, March 4). About essentials for childhood. https://web.archive.org/web/20240227050710/www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childabuseandneglect/essentials/about-essentials.html
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022b). Firearm mortality by state. National Center for Health Statistics. www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/sosmap/firearm_mortality/firearm.htm
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Edmonson, C., McCarthy, C., Trent-Adams, S., McCain, C., & Marshall, J. (2017). Emerging global health issues: A nurse’s role. OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.3912/OJIN.Vol22No01Man02
Farella, C. (2016). Hidden in plain sight: Identifying and responding to human trafficking in your ED. ENA Connect, 40(4), 4–22.
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8
Gun Violence Archive. (2022). Charts and maps. www.gunviolencearchive.org/charts-and-maps
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