Assumptions
There are things we think we know, things we think we might know, and things we know we don’t know. The important thing is being able to differentiate between these categories. In this book, we are trying to share some of the most important things we think we know about psychology, meaning these things may be interesting and/or helpful in living your life under your unique human conditions.
We don’t know you personally, but are going to try to communicate based on certain assumptions. These assumptions are usually inferences based on things we think we know. For instance, we think we know that you are reading this sentence. Another thing we think we know (but are not as certain of), is that you are a student at a college or university or are someone interested in psychology. Accordingly, we will try to relate the material to college’s usual demands (i.e., time management, learning & memory, problem-solving, health and stress, etc.).
In the field of psychology, we study human beings: the how and why people do what we do, think what we think, and feel what we feel. Through this book, you will begin to see the applications of psychological concepts in the media, in your interactions with others, and even in yourself. Sometimes, the things you learn will seem like common sense, other times you will experience real-life myth-busting as you learn surprising truths about what “everyone knows.” It is our sincere hope that you will take away a greater understanding of yourself, others, and the world around you. If this knowledge leads to increased curiosity about and compassion for yourself and others, then even better. This might seem a far-reaching goal for a college resource, but who knows. The things you learn here might stick with you as you move forward. After all psychology is the study of people, and here’s where we start.
Curiosity and the Science of Human Potential
The idea of potential is a paradox. Potential implies absolute both limits and enormous possibilities. It is simultaneously pessimistic and optimistic. Potential can result in good or harm, depending on how you think of it. If we view psychology as the science of human potential, it requires recognizing and accepting these contradictions. For example, every acorn has the potential to become a mighty oak but not every acorn will achieve that potential. Every human child has enormous potential, from being an astronaut, to a Nobel prize winner, to an Olympian. But it is only possible for some of that potential to be fulfilled.
Psychology assumes similar principles for acorns and oaks apply to human beings. Exposure to sunlight, water, and fertilizer determines the development of acorns. Our biology, environment, relationships, and the opportunities provided to and created by us all determine our development.
The first paragraph of the serenity prayer, usually attributed to Reinhold Niebuhr, states:
God grant me the serenity
To accept the things I cannot change;
Courage to change the things I can;
And wisdom to know the difference.
The messages conveyed by the serenity prayer relate to human potential. Those who are informed and active in considering options and making decisions are more likely to achieve their goals than those less informed or passive. Of course, this distinction is not the only determination. Such a message doesn’t include provided opportunities, genetics and biology, socioeconomic status, or the multitude of other factors you’ll learn about that also impact human growth and trajectory.
The college experience can be described as encouraging students to consider the meaning of their lives within the context of lives that have been lived and lives that could be lived. This requires knowledge of history, culture, and psychology to inform our understanding of humanity and the likelihood of change. The more we know about human potential and possibility, the more we can remain in a state of curiosity about the human condition. Rather than simply accepting our situations or the state of the world around us, we can ask what factors are necessary for change. For example, how can certain traits, attitudes, or behaviors be nurtured and others be prevented? What barriers have prevented folks from reaching their goals? How can techniques of persuasion be used for good?
The Psychology Student
Motivation and Grades
If you are a college student, you likely care about grades. You might even believe getting good grades are the key to reaching your potential – or at least your goals. It is unlikely you would be pursuing college if you didn’t care how you perform. You will not likely excel at anything without the motivation to meet acceptable standards of performance, and “caring” is part of that motivation. When you were young, parents and teachers may have tried to get you to care about how you performed in and out of school. This often happens early in life through a focus on school grades. For example, research on young children has demonstrated that some Head Start,[1] first-grade, and second-grade students[2] do better on IQ tests if they are given extrinsic rewards
(e.g., candy or trinkets) for correct answers. Other students perform to the best of their ability without the
extrinsic motivation. Those students may be motivated instead by intrinsic motivation, or by the enjoyment and interest in the activity rather than an external reward.
What motivates you? Rewards such as grades, or your interest and enthusiasm for an activity or topic? Does it depend on the situation?
Motivation is a highly complex construct and one psychologists have studied in school or other academic settings. Motivation in these settings often take the form of grades. The problem with this is we often give grades more power than deserved. If you earn “good” grades, you are more likely to receive praise from others, feel good about your performance, get into college or graduate school, or win awards.
But, do grades always represent how much you learned or how hard you worked? Do they represent the skills you have developed and will use in your career? We encourage you to think about what grades mean and how much they are a part of your identity – for better or worse. Yes, grades are necessary due to the current structure of the education system, but they do not always need to carry the weight they do currently. Many students would be better off if they focused on the skills and knowledge they were attaining rather than the grade they earned. When a potential employer is assessing whether you can do the job you want to get, they will ask what skills you have, how you apply yourself to learn new things, and how well you work with others – not just your GPA.
The Blind Men and the Elephant
Over the years, many students have asked why they have to spend time taking required “core” courses that don’t seem to apply to their future careers. They indicate a desire to just take courses in their favorite or chosen department (often referred to as a major). We often respond to such questions by referring to the famous picture based on the poem,
The Blind Men and the Elephant[3][4]
Figure 1.1 Blind men and an elephant[/caption]
Often, students are asked to take courses in the humanities (i.e., history, literature, art, music, or philosophy), “natural” sciences (i.e., physics, biology, or “laboratories”), and social and behavioral sciences. Psychology, which may be defined as the scientific study of individual thought, feeling, and behavior, is usually included in that last category with similar disciplines such as Sociology and Political Science. It is usually not included in the natural sciences category with disciplines such as Biology or Chemistry, even though, as you will learn, much of its research is similarly conducted in laboratories.
In our metaphor, the arts, natural sciences, and behavioral sciences may each be considered a singular blind man, while the elephant represents the human condition. Each field’s perspective attempts to help understand the world within a broader context of time, place, and ideas. History attempts to base its understanding on artifacts obtained over different periods. Literature attempts to capture the essence of the human condition in different types of creative narratives (e.g., novels, plays, poems). Art and music provide different types of examples of human creativity and expression. Philosophy applies reason and logic to questions regarding the meaning of life. However, each of these perspectives presents only a fraction of the larger human condition, or elephant here. By taking core classes and learning about perspectives outside of your discipline, you get to see the larger picture of the world.
Sometimes students believe they will repeat the same material since they have already taken similar courses in high school. This may be partially true – and we have long known from studies of cognition that repetition improves memory.[5] Also, you will probably find that college professors ask you to think more deeply and engage with more challenging versions of the material.
The Importance of Knowing When You Know and When You Don’t Know
Even experienced college students and adults sometimes have difficulty determining when they understand something and when additional (or more likely, different) preparation is required. We designed this resource to help you determine how well you understand the material, using the “retrieval practice” questions at the end of major sections. Retrieval practice is simply the act of trying to remember – and is one of the best ways to create lasting learning. Some of these questions can be answered through memorization. Others will require a level of understanding beyond memorization. Those questions will require integrating and applying key concepts so you appreciate the basis for our current understanding of psychological issues. Another good way to practice is by writing out your answers to these questions. You may sometimes find that, even though you thought you understood the material after you read it, you have difficulty providing a clear, complete, and accurate answer. If this is the case, you will know this is the material you need to review until you can provide such an answer. Think of it as a gift to “future you” – the more you take the little bit of extra time to ensure you understand what you have read, the better you will remember the material in the future and connect it to other concepts.
Exercise
Our experience as college professors teaching first-year students through seniors (and graduate students) has shown students almost always have the ability to reach their goals. Failure to perform to one’s abilities can occur for a variety of reasons. For example, family and financial responsibilities can prevent some from dedicating sufficient time to their learning. Others have not yet developed effective time management or study habits. A good analogy to consider is athletics. No matter the sport, playing to your ability requires hard, but also smart, work. Sometimes, a player may be injured and not be able to play at the same level. Sometimes an athlete will feel great and be able to perform well, other days may be more of an ‘off-day’. But what matters is the consistency of practice and the understanding of whatever limits the athlete has that day. No matter what type of day it is for you, you can hustle and play smart. In a school setting, that means dedicating sufficient time and effective effort to your studying.
If you don’t have experience with athletics, can you think of another example where you need to “practice hard and practice smart?”
The Structure of College and How Psychology Fits
Psychology is an academic discipline (i.e., body of knowledge based upon accepted, standardized methods). Before we consider the structure of the psychology curriculum and how it relates to the organization and content of this book, we will consider where psychology fits within the usual college curriculum. College students are asked (sometimes required) to take courses in many academic disciplines. Many of these courses are taught by departments housed in administrative units known as Arts and Sciences. Psychology is almost always housed within colleges of Arts and Sciences encompassing many disciplines not designed to prepare students for specific career paths (e.g., Art & Music, History, Philosophy, Physics, Literature, etc.). This is in contrast to pre-professional academic units such as Education, Business, and Nursing.
The undergraduate psychology major prepares students for graduate education and psychology-related vocations such as clinical, counseling, school, and industrial-organizational psychology. It ALSO prepares you for jobs that seem unrelated to the major. People with a bachelor’s (4-year) degree in psychology find meaningful work in education, human resources and talent management, public service, marketing, and many other fields. The skills gained as a psychology major set you up for jobs that require working with people, information management, collaboration, analytical thinking, and communication.
Links to Learning: Majors and Careers
Too often we hear from students that their family or friends say things like “you can’t do anything with an undergraduate degree in psychology.” This comes from a misunderstanding of what the psychology major is, and what psychologists do. Although not all psychology majors stay in the field or go to graduate school, they all gain valuable skills which transfer into the settings they do end up working in. As you will learn, psychology is an enormous field and psychologists take many roles. When someone says “I am a psychologist”, it could mean so many different things beyond therapy or mental health. So, it is important to find out what kind of work they actually do and what different opportunities exist in under the larger psychological umbrella.
To learn more about the value of psychology and about career opportunities, see the websites and podcasts here;
- Check out this list of skills that the Psychology Student develops as a major. The Skillful Psychology Student.
- According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics the job growth for psychology till 2026 is projected to be faster than the average for other occupations. The American Psychological Association website includes a substantial amount of information concerning career opportunities in psychology.
- Another very helpful psychology career website is Dr. Kit.
- For more information, check out this Careers in Psychology website for many resources in career exploration, guidance on resume-writing, and more. These resources can be also applied outside of psychology.
- Brittany Avila interviews folks about how they got into their careers in her Career Journey Podcast.
- In the Psych Mic podcast, Maya Mester interviews people who work in psychology-related fields.
Interested what makes something a calling rather than a career? Check out:
- Steven Zhou’s podcast interview about “what’s in a calling?”
- A paper by Aiken & Kuykendall about the different forms a calling can take
Psychology and the Key Integrative Themes
At this point, you might be thinking “I’m not a psychology major, why should I care about skills in psychology?” Great question! For this we can turn back to internal motivation, as the answer will need to come from you. What knowledge and skills do you want to work on during your time in this class (and in your other classes)? You may not be sure how to answer that question, but if you want to explore this idea further, you can go to this Employable Skills website and assess yourself on your confidence related to the skills that employers look for.[11]
Can you set some skills-related goals after completing the survey?
If you are taking an Introduction to Psychology course, you are likely learning slightly different content from someone taking the same course at another school. Introduction to psychology is expected to provide a survey of psychology’s major content areas and theoretical perspectives, including classic and contemporary research findings in psychology. However, psychology is such a broad field there is no way to introduce all of it in just a semester. Also, as Introduction to Psychology is often a general education course, many students who take it are not psychology majors. So the challenge is to introduce the field to folks who are (or may be) planning to take more psychology courses, AND to folks for whom this is the only psychology course they will ever take.
The Key Integrative Themes serve as connective tissue or as bridges to connect the various areas of psychology for any student. These themes are what you can take from this course to use and remember for years to come.
A preview of the Key Integrative Themes:
The field of Psychology
Becoming Us
Key Theme: Psychological, biological, social, and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes
This theme is about the biopsychosocial perspective, which outlines three major domains of psychology. These domains help to explain human behavior and to see human potential. By the end of the chapter, the reader can better understand the question “How did I become the person I am becoming today?”
Research Methods and Empiricism
The Ethical Psychologist
Key Theme: Ethical principles guide psychology research and practice.
Psychologists work in research, in treatment settings, and in organizations and schools. In each of these roles, psychologists are guided by the responsibility to act in ethical ways. These ethics are there to protect us, our participants, and any other people we work with. Students too, need to consider how their actions affect them and the people around them. By the end of the chapter the reader will have a fuller response to the question “What do psychologists do?”
The Psychological Scientist
Key Theme: Psychological science relies on empirical evidence and adapts as new data develop.
The field of psychology is constantly evolving. We use scientific methods to determine what we know in a methodical and organized way. By the end of the chapter, the reader should be able to start answering the question “How do psychologists learn about human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors?”
Psychology in Our Lives
Our Imperfect Lens
Key Theme: Our perceptions and biases filter our experiences of the world through an imperfect personal lens.
We bring our prior learning and past experiences to help us understand every new situation. Since no person’s background is the same and our knowledge of others and the world will always be incomplete, this “lens” we use is inherently imperfect and imprecise. Therefore, each person understands and experiences the world in different ways, which in turn creates new experiences to inform future ones.
Changing our Lives
Key Theme: Applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways.
Using what we know about human behavior, thoughts, and feelings, we can enhance our lives and the lives of others. This ranges from principles of effective studying based on how humans learn, to informed hiring practices, to the treatment of severe psychological disorders and so much more.
Psychology in our World
Individual Differences and Similarities
Key Theme: Psychology explains general principles that govern behavior while recognizing individual differences.
Psychological science helps us to understand the human condition and potential, but that understanding is not “one size fits all.” Each person is valued for their uniqueness as well as their similarities.
Just Societies
Key Theme: Psychology values diversity, promotes equity and fosters inclusion in the pursuit of a more just society.
The field of psychology has made efforts toward creating a more fair and balanced view of human behavior, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Psychological science has contributed to increased equity in the workplace, education, courtrooms, and more.
Exercises
Describe the academic structure of most colleges. Define psychology and describe where it fits within this structure.
When you read through the Key Integrative Themes, did any of them stand out to you as more interesting or meaningful? If so, why?
References/Footnotes
[1] Edlund, 1972
[2] Clingman & Fowler, 1976
[3]Wikipedia Contributors. “Blind Men and an Elephant.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Mar. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_men_and_an_elephant.
[4]“The Blind Men and the Elephant” in The Poems of John Godfrey Saxe (1872)
[5]Ebbinghaus, Hermann. “Concerning Memory, 1885.” Readings in the History of Psychology. 1948, pp. 304–13, https://doi.org/10.1037/11304-034.
[6] American Psychological Association. “The Skillful Psychology Student.” Apa.org, 2021, www.apa.org/education-career/guide/transferable-skills.pdf.
[7] American Psychological Association. “Careers in Psychology.” Apa.org, 2008, www.apa.org/education-career/guide/careers.
[8]Kit. “Psychology | Dr. Kit.” Www.drkit.org, www.drkit.org/psychology/.
[9] “Careers in Psychology.” Sites.google.com, sites.google.com/view/careers-in-psychology/home.
[10] Metser, Maya. “Listen to the Podcast | Psych Mic | Explore Careers W/ Industry Leaders.” Psych Mic, www.psychmic.com/podcast. Accessed 26 July 2024.
[11] Ciarocco, and Strohmetz. “Employable Skills Survey.” Employableskills.com, employableskills.com/. Accessed 26 July 2024.
Authors: Alison H. Melley, Anna Sofia Caruso
Contributors: Sara Melley, Neha Kannan, Sarah Kleppinger, Elizabeth Lane, Kennedy Korzen