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Index

Page numbers followed by “f” denote figures and “t” denote tables.

A

B

  • Behavior
    • assessment, 215f
    • baseline of, 214–216
    • challenging. See Challenging behaviors
    • cultural influences on, 5, 57–58
    • definition of, 24
    • iceberg analogy for, 145–146
    • identifying patterns of, 143–144
    • implicit bias effects on, 59
    • learning affected by, 67, 201
    • observable, 145, 145f
    • regulation of, 30
    • relationships affected by, 202
    • safety affected by, 201–202
    • social and emotional development progressions and, 39
    • tiered system of supports and, 80–84
    • unpacking patterns of, 143–144
  • Behavior intervention plans, 216–218
  • Behavioral assessment, 190
  • Behavioral support, 201, 224
  • Behavioral support specialists, 212
  • Behavioral support system, 190
  • Behaviorism, 11
  • Belonging, sense of, 2
  • Beta commands, 173
  • Bias
    • implicit, 59–60
    • negativity, 13
  • Bipolar disorder, 230
  • BIPs. See Behavior intervention plans
  • Biting, 228
  • Boarding schools, for Indigenous children, 5
  • Body language, 166
  • Bowlby, John, 29
  • Box breathing, 134
  • Brain, trauma and, 8, 45
  • Brain breaks, 133–134
  • Brown vs. Board of Education, 4
  • Bubble breathing, 134

C

  • Calm-down spaces, 181–182, 183t
  • Calming cuing, 180
  • CASEL
    • competencies, 44–45
    • social and emotional learning definitions, 41
    • Wheel, 44, 44f
  • Categorical classrooms, 232
  • Center on Education Policy, 3
  • Center on Multi-Tiered System of Supports, 76
  • Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning, 78
  • Center-based programs, 232
  • Centering care, 11–12
  • Challenging behaviors
    • addressing, 154–160
    • attribution theory, 145
    • collaborative proactive solutions for, 156, 158
    • coregulation, 154–155
    • emotional components of, 190
    • problem-solving approach to, 156–160
    • Shanker self-regulation model for, 155–156
    • stress responses and, 147
    • top-down perspective of, 146
    • in transitions, 170
    • willful disobedience, 145
  • “Checking our lenses,” 7
  • Child development
    • age and stage influences on, 20, 24–28
    • attachment theory of, 29
    • cascading influences on, 19, 20f
    • cognitive developmental theory. See Cognitive developmental theory
    • contextual influences on, 20–24
    • critical pedagogy, 23–24
    • early experiences that influence, 36
    • external influences on, 29–31
    • human ecological development, 22–23, 23f
    • individual development, 20
    • information processing theory of, 31
    • internal models of, 29–31
    • normative, 25
    • progressions in, 39
    • psychosocial development, 27–28, 28t
    • sociocultural learning theory of, 21–22
    • theory theory of, 29–30
    • trauma effects on, 45
  • Child Development Project, 12
  • Child study teams, 231
  • Child-centered approach, 86
  • Child-centered practices, 23
  • Children
    • attachment theory, 95
    • needs of, 12, 14–15
    • pathologizing, 86
    • stress response of, 147–153
    • teacher well-being effects on, 66
  • Children of color
    • K-12 school data for, 4t
    • preschool data for, 4t
    • school exclusion for, 3–4
  • Chronosystem, 22, 23f
  • CLASS. See Classroom assessment scoring system
  • Class meetings, 137–138
  • Classroom
  • Classroom assessment scoring system, 95
  • Classroom communities
    • building of, 2, 116
    • conflict in, 2
    • evolution of, 3–7
    • excluding child from, 201
    • healthy, 1–2
    • historical changes affecting, 5
    • learning and, 2
    • physical punishment effects on, 7–8
    • positive, 11–15
    • positive childhood experiences in, 48
    • power in, 10–11
    • productive engagement in, 102
    • teachers’ role in, 6–7
    • withdrawal from, 104
  • Classroom environment
    • active energy spaces in, 122
    • design of, 117
    • early learning classrooms, 118–120
    • engagement of children affected by, 121
    • intensive modifications, 207–211
    • materials in, 123–127
    • microclimates in, 121
    • nervous system’s response to, 147
    • overstimulation in, 126
    • overview of, 116–117
    • physical, 117–122
    • plants in, 123
    • primary-grade classrooms, 120–121
    • productive, 116
    • respite spaces in, 121–122
    • setup, 117
    • as stimulating, 127
    • stimuli in, 121, 177
    • universal design for learning framework, 116, 207
  • Classroom instruction, 5
  • Classroom management
    • checking our lens and, 7
    • community model for, 2, 2f, 48, 144
    • corporal punishment in, 7
    • ineffective models of, 7–8, 8f
    • needs of children addressed in, 14–15
    • personal experiences effect on, 7
    • physical punishment in, 7
    • positive behavior support models for, 9
    • power continuum in, 10–11, 11f
    • punitive approach to, 9, 10f
    • rewards-based approach to, 9
    • strengths-based approach to, 13–14
    • student-centered teaching approach, 14–15
    • support-based approach to, 10f
    • traditional approach to, 14
    • trauma and, 48
    • well-being and, 67–69
    • whole-child approach to, 15
  • Classroom routines
  • Clip chart, 8, 8f
  • Code of Ethical Conduct, 61
  • Cognitive developmental theory
    • concrete operational phase, 26, 26t
    • description of, 25
    • formal operational phase, 26t
    • preoperational phase, 25–26, 26t
    • schemas, 25
    • sensorimotor phase, 25, 26t
  • Cognitive mapping, 29
  • Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. See CASEL
  • Collaborative proactive solutions, 156, 158
  • Collaborative problem-solving, 160
  • Collectivist approach, 58
  • Communication, culture and, 57
  • Communities
  • Community building, 2, 2f
  • Community centered identity, 58t
  • Community model, for classroom management, 2, 2f, 48, 144
  • Community resources, 213–214
  • Compulsory schooling, 3
  • Concise directives, 172–173, 173t, 178
  • Concrete operational phase, 26, 26t
  • Conditional positive regard, 12
  • Confidentiality, 213
  • Conflict
    • cultural expectations, 58t
    • in healthy communities, 2
    • in relationships, 100–101
    • resolution of, 180, 183t
    • teacher-student relationships affected by, 95
  • Context
    • child development influenced by, 20–24
    • cultural differences, 57t
    • description of, 37
    • family influence on, 37
  • Coping, 46
  • Coregulation, 154–155, 209
  • Corporal punishment, 7
  • Covert expressions, of learning community withdrawal, 104
  • CPS. See Collaborative proactive solutions
  • Critical pedagogy, 23–24
  • CSEFEL. See Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning
  • Cue(s)
  • Cultural differences, 57
  • Cultural diversity, 37
  • Cultural expectations, 57t–58t
  • Cultural experiences, as mental models, 56–59
  • Cultural history, 55
  • Cultural orientations, 57–58
  • Cultural self-reflection, 60t
  • Culturally responsive practices, 97–98
  • Culture
    • behavioral practices affected by, 5, 57–58
    • child’s context and identity influenced by, 37
    • collectivist approach, 58
    • communication and, 57
    • deep, 57
    • definition of, 37
    • as mental models, 56–59
    • values of, 37
  • Culture tree, 56f, 56–57

D

E

F

G

  • Groupings, 172

H

  • Hands-on learning, 122
  • Harm, 12
  • Head Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework, 39
  • Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, 213
  • Healthy communities
    • conflict in, 2
    • definition of, 1–2
  • “Healthy Community Policy Guide,” 1
  • High-profile strategies, for reengaging students
  • High-touch practices, 109
  • HIPAA. See Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
  • Housing redlining, 3
  • Human ecological development, 22–23, 23f
  • Human ecological theory, 66
  • Hyperarousal, 46, 151–152, 153f, 181
  • Hypoarousal, 151–153, 153f

I

J

  • Jim Crow laws, 3

K

  • K-12 schooling
    • cultural differences in, 60
    • statistics regarding, 4t
  • Kaplan’s model of Teacher Role-Identity and Motivation as a Dynamic System, 62

L

Low-touch practices, 109
LRE. See Least restrictive environment

M

N

O

P

Polyvagal theory, 147–148
Positive behavior support models, 9
Positive behavioral interventions and supports, 77, 81–82
Positive childhood experiences, 47–48
Positive classroom communities, centering care for, 11–12
Positive discipline learning communities, 137–138
Positive psychology, 13
Positive regard, 12
Poverty, 3
Power, in classroom, 5, 10–11
Power struggles, 167
Practices and philosophy, connection between, 8
Precision requests, 178–179, 183t
Preoperational phase, 25–26, 26t
Preschool, 4t
Primary-grade classrooms, 120–121
Problem-based learning, 41
Problem-solving

  • challenging behaviors addressed through, 156–160
  • collaborative, 160
  • data-based individualization, 219
  • Plan B, 160
  • regulation for, 182
  • tiered system of support focus on, 85

Progress monitoring, 79, 217–219
Proximity, 169–170, 173t
Psychosocial development, 27–28, 28t
Punishment

  • classroom management uses of, 7, 9, 10f
  • definition of, 9
  • physical, 7
  • rewards versus, 9
  • support model versus, 10, 10f

Pyramid Model for Promoting the Social and Emotional Development of Infants and Young Children, 78, 82f, 82–83

R

  • Racism, 3–4
  • Redirection, 169, 173t
  • Redlining, 3
  • Reexperiencing, of traumatic experiences, 46
  • Reflective listening, 159
  • Reflexive listening, 180
  • Refusal strategies, 208
  • Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504 of, 206, 226
  • Relational wealth, 99
  • Relationship(s)
  • Relationship building
  • Relationship focused, 58t
  • Relationship skills, 40–41, 45
  • Resilience, 47–48
  • Resource rooms, 232
  • Respite spaces, in classroom, 121–122
  • Response to intervention, 77–78, 80f–81f, 80–81
  • Responsive classroom approach, 136–137
  • Restorative justice, 12
  • Rewards
    • classroom management based on, 9
    • punishment versus, 9
  • Rogers, Carl, 12
  • Routines
  • RTI. See Response to intervention
  • RULER approach, 134–135
  • Runners, 208
  • Running records, 193

S

  • Safety, 147, 154, 201–202
  • Sarcasm, 167–168
  • Scaffolding, 21–22, 29, 41, 125
  • Scheduled breaks, 172, 173t
  • Schemas, 25, 29
  • School(s)
    • behavioral support specialists in, 212
    • boarding, 5
    • children excluded from, 3–4
    • collaborations in, 65
    • confidentiality in, 213
    • cultural norms promoted in, 5
    • days of attendance in, 3
    • family members’ perceptions of, 106
    • historical changes in, 5, 6f
    • intensive resources in, 212–213
    • racist practices in, 3–4
    • segregation practices in, 4
    • statistics regarding, 4t
    • teachers’ role in, 6–7, 11
  • School belonging, 2
  • School community
    • composition of, 64
    • family engagement in, 107
  • School counselor, 213
  • School psychologists, 213
  • Schooling
    • focus of, 5
    • historical changes in, 5, 6f
    • purpose of, 5
  • Scientific method, 189
  • Scripts, 29
  • Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 206, 226
  • Segregation, in schools, 4
  • SEL. See Social and emotional learning
  • Self-advocacy, 58
  • Self-awareness, 44
  • Self-contained classrooms, 232
  • Self-efficacy, 14
  • Self-esteem, 14
  • Self-management, 44
  • Self-reflections, 3, 60t
  • Self-regulation
  • Self-worth, 12
  • Sensorimotor phase, 25, 26t
  • Sensory memory, 31
  • Sensory modifications, 176–177, 183t
  • Shanker self-regulation model, 155–156
  • Short-term memory, 31
  • Skill building, individualizing, 209–211
  • SLI. See Speech and language impairment
  • SMART goals, 217, 217t
  • Social and emotional competencies
    • CASEL Wheel, 44, 44f
    • description of, 40–41
    • rating children on, 42
    • skills and abilities needed for, 45
  • Social and emotional development
    • children’s literature to support, 133, 133t
    • components of, 39–45
    • definition of, 39–40
    • in early learning classrooms, 118
    • importance of, 42
    • processes, 40
    • progressions in, 39
    • school belonging as vital for, 2
    • skills involved in, 41
    • teachers’ role in supporting, 11, 104
  • Social and emotional learning
    • approaches to, 43–45
    • definition of, 41
    • developmental approach to, 41
    • Functional Emotional Developmental Levels approach, 43
    • nurturing of, 41
    • play and, 41
  • Social and emotional routines, 132–133
  • Social awareness, 45
  • Social development, 39
  • Social identities, intersectionality of, 54, 55f
  • Social information processing ability, 31
  • Social learning theory, 14
  • Social maladjustment, 229
  • Social narratives, 131t, 131–132, 209–210
  • Social Stories, 209–210, 210t
  • Sociocultural learning theory, 21–22
  • Special education
    • autism spectrum disorder, 228–229, 230t
    • behavioral considerations, 229–230
    • diagnoses, 229–230
    • disability categories for, 227–229
    • early childhood developmental delay, 227
    • early intervention services, 225–226
    • eligibility for, 224, 234
    • emotional disturbance, 228–229
    • evaluation for, 225
    • 504 plan, 226, 227t
    • general education teacher’s role, 234–235
    • individualized education plans, 206, 226, 226t
    • other health impairment, 228
    • people and, 231
    • programs and, 231–232
    • services and, 232–234
    • speech and language impairment, 227–228
  • Special needs, children with, 3
  • Speech and language impairment, 227–228
  • Speech delay, 227–228
  • Square breathing, 134
  • Stoplight classroom chart, 8, 8f
  • Strange Situation experiment, 29
  • Strategic supports
  • Strengths-based approaches, 13–14
  • Stress
    • children’s response to, 147–153
    • learning affected by, 8
    • neural pathways triggered by, 148
    • resiliency effects on, 48
    • teacher, 66–67
    • teeth grinding as sign of, 228
    • toxic, 46
    • window of tolerance. See Window of tolerance
  • Stress response, 46
  • Student(s)
  • Student-centered teaching, 14–15
  • Supplementary services, 232

T

  • TACSEI. See Technical Assistance Center on Social and Emotional Interventions
  • Task focused, 58t
  • Teacher(s)
    • adaptive expertise of, 63
    • adverse childhood experiences in, 67
    • caring classroom communities created by, 11–12
    • conditional positive regard by, 12
    • expectations of, 87
    • implicit bias of, 59
    • learning environments, 64–65
    • learning opportunities, 62
    • professional standards that influence, 61, 61t
    • proximity of, to students, 169–170, 173t
    • role identity of, 62–63
    • role of, 6–7, 11, 104
    • stress on, 66–67
    • teaching approaches of, 63
    • turnover of, 67
    • well-being of, 65–69
  • Teacher identity
    • development of, 61–65
    • professional development and standards for, 61
  • Teacher-student relationships
    • closeness in, 95
    • conflict effects on, 95
    • culturally responsive practices, 97–98
    • importance of, 94
    • positive, 94, 103–104
    • trust in, 96–97, 103
  • Technical Assistance Center on Social and Emotional Interventions, 78
  • Theory theory, 29–30
  • Threats, 167
  • Tier 3 supports, 205–206, 206f
  • Tiered system of supports
    • behavior and, 80–84
    • child-centered approach, 86
    • components of, 76–77
    • critiquing of, 85–88
    • data-based decision-making, 79
    • definition of, 76
    • evidence-based practices, 79
    • expectations and, 87
    • fidelity focus, 87, 219
    • focusing on supports, 86–87
    • history of, 77–78
    • key elements of, 78–79
    • limitations of, 85–88
    • multitiered system of supports, 78, 83–84
    • overview of, 77–79
    • pitfalls of, 85–88
    • positive behavioral interventions and supports, 77, 81–82
    • problem-solving focus of, 85
    • progress monitoring, 79
    • Pyramid Model for Promoting the Social and Emotional Development of Infants and Young Children, 78, 82f, 82–83
    • response to intervention, 77–78, 80f–81f, 80–81
    • rewards for reinforcing, 85–86
    • strengths of, 85–88
    • triangle framework of, 76f, 76–77
    • unilateral power, 87–88
    • universal screening, 79
  • Time, 57t
  • Time sampling recording, 198–199, 199f, 200t
  • Toxic stress, 46
  • Transition(s)
    • individualizing of, 209
    • preparation for, 209
    • signals for, 170, 173t
  • Transitional routines, 129–130, 130t
  • Translingual children, 24
  • Trauma
    • avoidance of, 46
    • brain and, 8, 45
    • chronic, 46
    • episodic, 46
    • hyperarousal caused by, 46
    • reexperiencing of, 46
    • signs and symptoms of, 46
    • social and emotional competencies affected by, 45
    • types of, 46f
  • Trauma-informed practices, 48, 49t
  • Trust, 57, 96–97, 103, 107
  • Trust vs. mistrust, 27, 28t

U

V

W

  • Waiting, 209
  • Well-being
    • classroom management and, 67–69
    • definition of, 65
    • of teacher, 65–69
  • Whole-child approach, 15, 37
  • Willful disobedience, 145
  • Window of tolerance
    • boundaries, outside of, 151
    • cues indicating children are in, 150
    • definition of, 36, 149
    • “flipping your lid,” 151
    • hyperarousal, 151–152, 153f
    • hypoarousal, 151–153, 153f
    • increasing, 153, 154f
    • polyvagal theory and, 149
    • schematic diagram of, 150f
  • “Wish You Well” routine, 136
  • Word choice, 165–166
  • Working memory, 31
  • World Health Organization, well-being as defined by, 65
  • Wraparound planning, 213
  • Wraparound services, 188, 190

Y

  • Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, 134

Z

  • Zone of proximal development (ZPD), 21, 22f

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From Compliance to Co-Regulation Copyright © 2025 by Sara E. Miller; Leslie La Croix; Kimberly Sanders Austin; Christine Pegorraro Schull; and Marianne Pegorraro Durocher is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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