Note: Attributions for photographs are listed in the order in which they appear in the chapter. If not otherwise stated, material is used under the doctrine of fair use.

1. Introduction

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Grayscale photo of people at a market, by Danilo Ugaddan, is licensed under a Pexels license. This image was adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh, with modifications that included cropping and recoloring.

People watching dancers in traditional clothing, by Mio Advincula, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Engraved portrait of Isaac Newton, by unknown artist, is public domain and available at Wikimedia Commons. Modifications include recoloring the image.

1.1. The World according to Science

Still image of Leave it to Beaver, © Universal, is available at IMDb.

Still image of The Simpsons, © Walt Disney Studios, is available at CNet.

Still image of A Christmas Story (1983), © Time Warner, is available at PhillyVoice.

Roast ham, by Tim Sackton, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

Optical-glass triangular prism, by Dobromir Hristov, is licensed under a Pexels license.

1.2. Sociology as a Social Science

Man in red robe sitting beside green metal fence, by Minh N, is licensed under a Pexels license.

The tweet by @neiltyson, © Neil deGrasse Tyson, is available at X.

The book cover on the left is from Cut Loose: Jobless and Hopeless in an Unfair Economy (2015), by Victor Tan Chen, © University of California Press.

The book cover in the middle is from A Company of One: Insecurity, Independence, and the New World of White-Collar Unemployment (2011), by Carrie M. Lane, © Cornell University Press.

The book cover on the right is from The End of the Line: Lost Jobs, New Lives in Postindustrial America (1997), by Kathryn Marie Dudley, © University of Chicago Press.

Two girls using laptops surrounded by their classmates, by Max Fischer, is licensed under a Pexels license.

2. Using Sociology in Everyday Life

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

People walking near a white building, by Sachith Ravishka Kodikara, is licensed under a Pexels license. This image was adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh, with modifications that include cropping and recoloring.

Graphs of performance analytics on a laptop screen, by Luke Chesser, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

2.1. Sociologists as Scholars

Man standing in front of people sitting on red chairs, by the ICSA, is licensed under a Pexels license.

M. Paola Ometto and Carly Offidani-Bertrand presenting at the 2022 Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics (SASE) conference in Amsterdam, by Victor Tan Chen, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Thesis Defense, by Randall Munroe, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at XKCD.

2.2. Sociologists as Market Researchers

Women colleagues gathered inside a conference room, by Christina Morillo, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Woman looking at a computer monitor, by the Politécnico Grancolombiano Departamento de Comunicaciones, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

2.3. Sociologists as Policy Advisors and Evaluators

Photo of Patrick Moynihan, by John Mathew Smith, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Ronald Reagan’s presidential portrait (1981), is public domain and available at Wikimedia Commons.

Portrait of Michelle Obama in the Green Room of the White House, by Chuck Kennedy, is public domain and available at Wikimedia Commons.

The report cover is from a Data Foundation publication. Source: Williams, Stacey, Lori Gonzalez, Phylicia Bediako, Minnie McMillian, Alice Quach, and Austin Hepburn. 2022. “Understanding Policing in America.” Washington, DC: Data Foundation.

Headquarters building of the U.S. Census Bureau in Suitland, Maryland, is public domain and available at Wikimedia Commons.

Logos in the collage are © American Sociological Association, Idealist.org, PublicServiceCareers.org, USAJobs, and the Young Nonprofit Professionals Network.

CWA Local 9119 (AFL-CIO) on strike, by Amgine, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 1.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Logos in the collage are © Brookings Institution, Cato Institute, Center for American Progress, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, Economic Policy Institute, Heritage Foundation, and Manhattan Institute.

The report cover is from a Pew Research Center publication. Source: Nadeem, Reem. 2022. Modest Declines in Positive Views of ‘Socialism’ and ‘Capitalism’ in U.S. Pew Research Center. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.

2.4. Sociologists as Clinicians and Public Health Researchers

Photo of Jane Addams, © George Grantham Bain Collection of the U.S. Library of Congress’s Prints and Photographs Division, has no copyright restrictions and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Works Progress Administration poster advertising Hull House community workshop (1938) is public domain and available at Wikimedia Commons.

2.5. Sociologists as Activists and Change Agents

Photo of Martin Luther King Jr. has no copyright restrictions and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Photo of W. E. B. Du Bois (circa 1907) is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Map of the distribution of African American inhabitants of the Seventh Ward of Philadelphia, from The Philadelphia Negro (1899) by W. E. B. DuBois, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Photo of Sarah Dewees is used with permission.

2.6. Sociologists as Professionals and Citizens

A woman reporting beside the van, by cottonbro studio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Camels advertisement (1946) is available at Stanford Research into the Impact of Tobacco Advertising (SRITA).

3. The Role of Theory in Research

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Close-up photo of survey spreadsheet, by Lukas, via Pexels. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Used under the Pexels license. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Colorful dolls on display, by Marc Tollas, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

3.1. What Do We Mean by “Theory”?

Shallow-focus photo of woman smiling while holding pen and paper, by Andrea Piacquadio, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

3.2. Levels of Analysis

Macro, meso, and micro levels of analysis, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Homeless man sleeping near a cardboard sign, by Timur Weber, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Photo of Chinyere Osuji is used with permission.

3.3. The Components of Theories

Person riding a horse, by Brett Sayles, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Family having a picnic, by Kampus Production, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Woman and girl talking while lying on bed, by Ketut Subiyanto, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

People clapping their hands while seated on a sofa, by cottonbro studio, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

The theoretical and empirical levels of research, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

The relationships between concepts, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Close-up photo of old machinery, by Tima Miroshnichenko, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Charts illustrating spurious correlations, by Tyler Vigen, via Spurious Correlations. Used under a CC BY 4.0 license.

Screenshot of S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat. Courtesy of GSC Game World, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under a GNU Free Documentation license.

American pitbull terrier puppy lying on the floor, by Joice Rivas, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Screenshot of a Daily Mail image and an article, “Army Veteran Rescues Bald Eagle Dangling Upside Down from a Rope in 75-Foot Tree by ‘Mowing Down the Branches’ with his Rifle,” by Valerie Edwards. Courtesy of Jason Galvin and the Daily Mail, via Reddit.

Hygge book on a blanket, by Stella Rose, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

3.4. Evaluating Theories

Protest against pandemic measures in Liestal, Switzerland, by Kajetan Sumila, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Portrait of William of Ockham, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under a CC BY 4.0 license.

3.5. Major Sociological Theories and Paradigms

Group huddling on a grass field, by Anastasia Shuraeva, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Man pointing his finger, by Nathan Shively, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Portrait of Thomas Kuhn, by Davi.trip, via Wikimedia Commons.

Man with red-dyed hair, a pink shirt, and tinted glasses, by Reymon Reymon, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Photo of Auguste Comte, by Johan Hendrik Hoffmeister, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Photo of Émile Durkheim, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Photo of Paul Lazarsfeld. Courtesy of Bardwell Press, via Wikimedia Commons.

Person’s left hand against a white surface, by Elena Rabkina, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Photo of Max Horkheimer, by Barbara Niggl Radloff, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under a CC BY 4.0 license. Modifications to this photo include cropping.

Photo of Nancy Fraser, by Bunnyfrosch, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under the CC Share Alike 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic licenses. Modifications to this photo include cropping and changing the color.

3.6. Linking Theory and Data

Photo of Albert Einstein, by Orren Jack Turner, via Wikimedia Commons. No known restrictions. Modifications to this photo include cropping.

Photo of Stephen Hawking, by Doug Wheller, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license. Modifications to this photo include cropping and changing the color.

4. Research Questions

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, which is used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Brown wooden bookshelves with books, by Olena Bohovyk, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

4.1. Choosing a General Research Topic

Photo of Joyce Rothschild, by Gabriela León-Pérez.

Example of a concept map, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

4.2. Types of Research Questions

Still image of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie (2004). Courtesy of Nickelodeon, via IMDb.

Asian friends with tattoos, by Khoa Võ, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

4.3. Posing Explanatory Research Questions

The wheel of science, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Deduction: from abstract to concrete, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Rally to stop Asian hate, McPherson Square, Washington, DC (March 21, 2021), by Victoria Pickering, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 license.

Induction: from concrete to abstract, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

The Usual Irish Way of Doing Things, by Thomas Nast, published in Harper’s Weekly on September 2, 1871, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Screenshot of Reddit post “I Had a Science Fair Activity Tonight,” by whiteinshiningarmor, via Reddit.

4.4. Refining Your Research Question

Multiethnic family with a baby at home, by William Fortunato, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

5. Research Design

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, which is used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Magnifying glass on top of a document, by Anna Nekrashevich, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

5.1. What Should My Literature Review Cover?

“Mind the Gap” warning at a train station, by raghavvidya, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 license.

5.2. What Sources Should I Use?

Meme posted to Reddit, by xixoxixa, via Reddit.

5.3. How Do I Find Relevant Sources?

Low-angle photo of white bookshelves, by CHUTTERSNAP, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

5.4. How Do I Read and Evaluate Sources?

Tweet by Brian Gaensler (@SciBry), via X.

Signpost, by Zoe Davidson, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 license.

6. Sampling

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Peeled tangerine, by Karolina Kaboompics, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Photomontage of faces, by Gerd Altmann, via Pixabay. Used under the Pixabay license.

6.1. Units of Analysis

Man with a backpack looking through binoculars, by Rory McKeever, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Units of analysis, populations and samples, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Person using a magnifying glass on a map, by lil artsy, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

6.2. Populations versus Samples

People sitting on stadium seats, by Anna Sullivan, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Man standing in front of group of men, by Austin Distel, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Person flipping through the pages of a book, by Brittany Colette, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Target populations and sampling frames, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Respondents versus nonrespondents, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

6.3. Probability Sampling

Kid holding candies, by Patrick Fore, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Left hand playing with dice, by Guillermo Velarde, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Systematic Sampling, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

An example of periodicity when using systematic sampling, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Examples of proportionate and disproportionate stratified sampling: racial and ethnic groups in Richmond, Virginia, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

An example of cluster sampling: surveying public librarians in Virginia, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

6.4. Nonprobability Sampling

Six assorted-flavor donuts, by Heather Ford, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

People queuing beside a Louis Vuitton store, by Melanie Pongratz, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Snowball sampling, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Example of quota sampling, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Harry S. Truman holding the Chicago Daily Tribune with the erroneous headline, “Dewey Defeats Truman,” by Byron H. Rollins, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

The Man burns at Burning Man 2014, by torroid, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license.

Flight attendants standing in the aisle of an airplane, by Vinh Lâm, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

6.5. Questions to Ask about Samples

Sampling Bias, by Jono Hey, via Sketchplanations. Used under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license.

Tweet by Elon Musk (@elonmusk), via X.

7. Measuring the Social world

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, which is used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Earth from afar, by NASA, via NASA Earth Observatory. Public domain. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

The conceptualization-operationalization-measurement (COM) process, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

7.1. Operationalizing a Concept

Still image of the movie The Marine (2006). Courtesy of 20th Century Fox, via Wikimedia Commons.

Cleaner holding a bag with plastic bottles, by Xavier Messina, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Photo of Mollie Orshansky. Courtesy of the Social Security Administration History Archives, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Cover of the book The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (1996), by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, published by Simon & Schuster and Princeton University Press.

7.2. Deciding on the Correct Level of Measurement

German shepherd lying on the ground, by Summer Stock, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Modifications include cropping the image.

Yorkshire terrier in a party hat, by Sam Lion, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Modifications include cropping the image.

Ordinal level of measurement example: perceived health, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

The hierarchy of levels of measurement, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Temperature scales, by Emeka Udenze, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under the CC0 1.0 Universal license.

7.3. Indexes and Scales: Measures with Multiple Items

Image of the Social Progress Index component-level framework. Source: Stern, Scott, Jaromir Harmacek, Petra Krylova, and Mohamed Htitich. 2022. 2022 Social Progress Index Methodology Report. Washington, DC: Social Progress Imperative.

7.4. Measurement Quality

Assorted wine bottles, by Chris F, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Couple relaxing in a jacuzzi, by Ron Lach, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Comparing reliability and validity, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Man washing his hands, by Ketut Subiyanto, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Photo of L. Douglas Wilder. Courtesy of the National Institutes of Health, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Photo of Tom Bradley, by Bob Chamberlin, Los Angeles Times, via the UCLA Library. Used under the CC BY 4.0 license. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Women holding Trump banners, by Michael Anthony, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Photo of Matthew Desmond. Courtesy of the U.S. Library of Congress, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

8. Ethics

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Balance scale on a table, by Katrin Bolovtsova, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Guard with sunglasses, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, via PrisonExp.org. Used with permission for noncommercial purposes.

Rebellious prisoners, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, via PrisonExp.org. Used with permission for noncommercial purposes.

Prisoner 819 leaves the study, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, via PrisonExp.org. Used with permission for noncommercial purposes.

8.1. Subject to Harm: Coercion, Deception, and Other Risks for Participants

African American male being tested and treated during the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male. Courtesy of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Romani victim of Nazi medical experiments. Courtesy of the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, via the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum.

Still image of the movie Wormwood (2017). Courtesy of Netflix.

Page from the declassified documents of Project MKUltra, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Defendants in the dock at the Nuremberg war crimes tribunal, by Raymond D’Addario, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Sketch of Ted Kaczynski, by Jeanne Boylan, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Public domain.

Still image from The Simpsons episode “Family Therapy” (1989). Courtesy of the Walt Disney Company, via IMDb.

Cover of the book Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Spaces (2008), by Laud Humphreys, published by AldineTransaction.

8.2. The Belmont Principles: Respect for Persons, Beneficence, and Justice

Cover page of The Belmont Report (1979), by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, via University of North Texas Digital Library. Public domain.

Logo of Cambridge Analytica, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license.

1956 mugshot of James “Whitey” Bulger. Courtesy of USP Atlanta, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

2011 mugshot of Bulger. Courtesy of the U.S. Marshals Service, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Photo of Ronald Kessler and Mark Felt. Courtesy of Ronald Kessler, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license.

Animal Liberation Front Israel protest in Tel Aviv (September 8, 2016), by Roee Shpernik, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license.

Meme with still images from an interview of Donald Trump by Jonathan Swan. Courtesy of Axios, via Know Your Meme.

8.3. Regulating Research: Institutional Review Boards and Professional Norms

Screenshot of the Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) institutional review board website. Courtesy of VCU.

Logo of the American Sociological Association.

8.4. Veracity and Objectivity in Research

Still image from the movie Inside Job (2010). Sony Pictures Classics, via IMDb.

The Terrible Inspection (circa 1947), by Huang Rong-can, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Prisoners facing the wall, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, via PrisonExp.org. Used with permission for noncommercial purposes.

Photo of Didem Danış. Used with permission.

9. Ethnography

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Close-up photo of a person, by Marina Vitale, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

A couple fighting, by Timur Weber, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Police officer standing near bare trees, by Kindel Media, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

9.1. When and How to Use Ethnography

Two senior Inuits talking outdoors, by Александр Велигура, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Cockfighting (circa 1958). Courtesy of the Indonesian Ministry of Information, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Person holding meat and a knife, by Leonardo Luz, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

The participation continuum, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Still image from the Looney Tunes episode “Mad as a Mars Hare.” Courtesy of Warner Bros., via Wikimedia Commons.

Still image from the South Park episode “Going Native” (2012). Courtesy of Comedy Central, via IMDB.

9.2. Going into the Field

Sorority Bid Day. Courtesy of Henderson State University, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY-NC 2.0 license.

The disclosure continuum, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Survivalist with a bow and backpack standing in a mountain pasture, by Jordan Bergendahl, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Photo of Margaret Mead. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, via Wikimedia Commons.

Photo of Amy L. Best. Used with permission.

9.3. Field Jottings and Field Notes

Two pages from the book Cut Loose: Jobless and Hopeless in an Unfair Economy (2015), by Victor Tan Chen, published by the University of California Press.

Women using mobile phones, by Brett Sayles, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Woman in a checkered suit conducting an interview, by Tima Miroshnichenko, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Man beside a truck, by the World Sikh Organization of Canada, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

10. In-Depth Interviewing

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, which is used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Woman talking to a radio host, by George Milton, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Sara Rathod interviews Linda Wertheimer after a debate Wertheimer moderated at Wellesley College, by Graham Milldrum, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license.

10.1. When Should In-Depth Interviewing Be Used?

Crying toddler holding a banana, by Quinn Dombrowski, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license.

10.2. Creating Interview Guides

Prefer Open-Ended Questions, by Jono Hey, via Sketchplanations. Used under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license.

10.3. Preparing for In-Depth Interviews

Interviewing workers at the Hongcheon pinenut processing factory, by Ramon Carrillo, Asia-Pacific Forest Communicator Network, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 license.

10.4. Conducting In-Depth Interviews

Don’t Fill the Silence, by Jono Hey, via Sketchplanations. Used under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license.

Peer editing during a writer’s workshop, by Tim Lauer, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY-NC 2.0 license.

Photo of Allison Pugh, by Dan Addison. Used with permission.

10.5. Focus Groups

Grayscale photo of man in a black snapback hat, by Marcus Bellamy, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

11. Qualitative Data Analysis

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, and Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee,. Both sources are used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Scattered letter blocks, by Suzy Hazelwood, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

11.1. Coding Qualitative Data

Assorted colored stones in wooden containers, by julie aagaard, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Logos of ATLAS.ti, Dedoose, MaxQDA, NVivo, and QDA Miner.

Grayscale photo of a man smashing bricks, by Alexa Popovich, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Modifications to this photo include cropping.

Brick layer in Tel Aviv, by Zoltan Kluger, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain. Modifications to this photo include cropping.

Page from a journal article. Source: Chen, Victor Tan, and Jesse Goldstein. 2024. “The Theatre of Entrepreneurship: Learning to Perform the Speculative Self in University Entrepreneurship Programs.” Social Problems 71(1):203–19. Courtesy of Oxford Academic.

Photo of Leslie Martin. Courtesy of the University of Mary Washington.

11.2. Creating Arguments out of Codes

Representation of the evolution of the universe over 13.77 billion years, by NASA/WMAP Science Team, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Meme with a still image from the movie Mean Girls (2004). Courtesy of Paramount, via Fandom.

Two-by-two table from a journal article. Source: Doody, Sean, Victor Tan Chen, and Jesse Goldstein. 2016. “Varieties of Entrepreneurial Capitalism: The Culture of Entrepreneurship and Structural Inequalities of Work and Business Creation.” Sociology Compass 10(10):858–76. Courtesy of Wiley.

Diagram representing a typology. Adapted from source: Chen, Victor Tan. 2021. “The Mirage of Meritocracy and the Morality of Grace.” Pp. 58–72 in The Routledge Handbook on the American Dream. Vol. 1, edited by R. C. Hauhart and M. Sardoč. New York: Routledge.

Concept map representing relationships among variables in a journal article. Adapted from source: Dinesen, Peter Thisted, Merlin Schaeffer, and Kim Mannemar Sønderskov. 2020. “Ethnic Diversity and Social Trust: A Narrative and Meta-Analytical Review.” Annual Review of Political Science 23(1):441–65. Courtesy of Annual Reviews.

11.3. Writing Up Qualitative Results

Close-up photo of a burger, by Vilnis Husko, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Modifications to this photo include cropping.

Twin girls smiling, by cottonbro studio, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Blockquotes in a journal article. Source: Ravenelle, Alexandrea J., Abigail Newell, and Ken Cai Kowalski. 2021. “‘The Looming, Crazy Stalker Coronavirus’: Fear Mongering, Fake News, and the Diffusion of Distrust.” Socius 7:23780231211024776. Courtesy of Sage.

Family preparing food in the kitchen, by August de Richelieu, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Two excerpts from the book Cut Loose: Jobless and Hopeless in an Unfair Economy (2015), by Victor Tan Chen, published by the University of California Press.

12. Experiments

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Research Methods in Psychology (2015), by Rajiv S. Jhangiani and I-Chant A. Chiang. All sources are used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Two test tubes, by Martin Lopez, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Still image from Mythbusters episode “President’s Challenge.” Courtesy of Discovery Channel, via NPR.

12.1. Pre-experimental Designs: What You Should Not Do

Boy in a white lab coat holding an eye dropper, by Clint Patterson, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

AddUpDog, by Elijah Kai Chen. Used with permission.

One-group posttest-only design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

One-group pre-post design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Two-group pretest–posttest design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Apples and oranges on a plaid blanket, by Anastasiya Romanova, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Ad for participants, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, via PrisonExp.org. Used with permission for noncommercial purposes.

12.2. Randomized Controlled Designs: What You Should Do

A classic experiment: two-group randomized pre-post design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Still image from the Star Trek episode “The City on the Edge of Forever” (1967). Courtesy of CBS/Paramount, via Trek Report.

Two-group randomized pre-post design with scores (math app example), by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

12.3. Persistent Validity Problems: What You Still Need to Avoid

Pygmalion Adoring His Statue (1717), by Jean Raoux, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Pregnant woman typing on a laptop, by Pavel Danilyuk, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

White pill on a yellow surface, by Karolina Grabowska, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Young man working on a laptop and writing notes, by Michael Burrows, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Two-group randomized posttest-only design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

12.4. Field Experiments: External Validity at the Cost of Control

Police officer putting handcuffs on another person, by Kindel Media, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Outcomes at 24 years or older for children who moved before they were 13: an analysis of Moving to Opportunity data, by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Graphic adapted from source: Wolfers, Justin. 2015. “Why the New Research on Mobility Matters: An Economist’s View.” New York Times, May 4. Data updated from source: Chetty, Raj, Nathaniel Hendren, and Lawrence F. Katz. 2016. “The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children: New Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment.” American Economic Review 106(4):855–902. 10.1257/aer.20150572.

Real estate agent shaking the hand of a black man while a white woman watches, by Thirdman, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Appointments obtained for mental health therapy by the class, race, and gender of the help-seeker: an audit study, by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Data from source: Kugelmass, Heather. 2016. “‘Sorry, I’m Not Accepting New Patients’: An Audit Study of Access to Mental Health Care.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 57(2):1–16. Courtesy of Sage.

The effect of a criminal record on black and white job applicants: an audit study, by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Data from source: Pager, Devah. 2003. “The Mark of a Criminal Record.” American Journal of Sociology 108(5):937–75. Courtesy of the University of Chicago Press.

Sitting woman in a striped jacket shaking hands with someone standing, by the RDNE Stock Project, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

12.5. Quasi-experiments: Approximating True Experiments with Observational Data

Twin girls holding red and yellow skateboards, by cottonbro studio, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Nonequivalent control group design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Graph illustrating the effects of the CESSP Scholarship Program on school attainment. Source: Filmer, Deon, and Norbert Schady. 2009. “School Enrollment, Selection, and Test Scores.” Policy Research Working Paper No. 4998, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Demolished residential buildings, by Franklin Peña Gutierrez, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

The logic of the differences-in-differences method in a minimum-wage study, by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Adapted from source: Card, David, and Alan Krueger. 1994. “Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.” American Economic Review 84(4):772–93.

Barack Obama delivering a speech at the Washington National Cathedral, by Jose A. Torres Jr., Department of Defense, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

Automobiles destroyed by the Oklahoma City bombing, by Preston Chasteen, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

One-group time-series design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Time-series outcome when the treatment has an effect, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Graph (Figure 1a) illustrating the Oklahoma County general fertility rate over time. Source: Rodgers, Joseph Lee, Craig A. St John, and Ronnie Coleman. 2005. “Did Fertility Go up after the Oklahoma City Bombing? An Analysis of Births in Metropolitan Counties in Oklahoma, 1990-1999.” Demography 42(4):675–92. Courtesy of Springer.

Multiple time-series design with two comparison groups, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

12.6. Experiments: Our Best Way of Inferring Causality, but Far from Foolproof

Two girls eating cookies, by cottonbro studio, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

13. Surveys

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone, and Research Methods in Psychology (2015), by Rajiv S. Jhangiani and I-Chant A. Chiang. All sources are used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Woman reading papers, by cottonbro studio, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Photo of Shirley Chisholm, by Thomas J. O’Halloran, via U.S. Library of Congress. Public domain.

13.1. The Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research

Cover of U.S. News & World Report’s 2022 edition of “Best Colleges Ranking,” via Wikipedia.

Annoyed woman having a video chat on her smartphone at home, by Alex Green, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

13.2. Types of Surveys

SAG-AFTRA strike rally, by Eden, Janine and Jim, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license.

Section of the 1890 U.S. Census form. Courtesy of the U.S. Census Bureau. Public domain.

Letter regarding the 2023 Survey of Doctorate Recipients. Courtesy of the National Science Foundation.

13.3. Designing Effective Questions and Questionnaires

Table summarizing results from three separate but similarly worded questions. Source: Tyson, Alec, and Carroll Doherty. 2013. “Polling on the Deficit: Why Question Order Matters.” Pew Research Center.

Question for a survey interviewer on a 2022 General Social Survey (GSS) questionnaire. Courtesy of NORC.

Table from a report on the impact of question ordering. Source: Tyson, Alec, and Carroll Doherty. 2013. “Polling on the Deficit: Why Question Order Matters.” Pew Research Center. Retrieved October 16, 2023 (https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2013/12/20/polling-on-the-deficit-why-question-order-matters).

Question about family income on a 2022 GSS questionnaire. Courtesy of NORC.

Excerpt from a survey for the 2016 U.S. presidential candidates. Source: The Onion. 2016. “‘The Onion’ Is Withholding Our Endorsement for President until Both Candidates Respond to Our Questionnaire.” The Onion, October 12.

Double-barreled response options, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Excerpt from the Mexican Migration Project’s Mexican Ethnosurvey of Family, Migration, and Labor. Courtesy of the Mexican Migration Project.

Excerpt from the 2016 Survey of Consumer Finances questionnaire. Courtesy of the U.S. Federal Reserve. Public domain.

14. Quantitative Data Analysis

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, which is used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Colorful plastic numbers and mathematical symbols, by Karolina Grabowska, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Still image from the Schoolhouse Rock episode “Ready or Not Here I Come” (1973). Courtesy of Scholastic Rock, Inc./ABC, via Schoolhouse Rock Fandom.

Logo of SPSS. Courtesy of IBM.

14.1. Preparing for Data Analysis

Excerpt from the Mexican Migration Project’s LIFE codebook. Courtesy of the Mexican Migration Project.

Levels of measurement, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Two people’s hands touching, by Alexander Grey, via Unsplash. Used under the Unsplash license.

Close-up photo of a computer mining rig, by panumas nikhomkhai, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Screenshot of the data repository website of the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR). Courtesy of ICPSR.

Screenshot of the GSS Data Explorer website. Courtesy of NORC.

Excerpt from a 2022 GSS questionnaire. Courtesy of NORC.

14.2. Univariate Data Analysis: Analyzing One Variable at a Time

Breaking down a frequency table, by Bizhan Khodabandeh.

Businessman holding money in his hands, by Andrea Piacquadio, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

People on a cliff watching a man dive into the sea, by Kammeran Gonzalez-Keola, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Elderly person holding a stress ball as someone touches their wrist, by Matthias Zomer, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Breakdown of a sample’s demographic characteristics (Table 1) from a journal article. Source: Lee, Bob, Yiwei Chen, and Lynne Hewitt. 2011. “Age Differences in Constraints Encountered by Seniors in Their Use of Computers and the Internet.” Computers in Human Behavior 27(3):1231–37. Courtesy of ScienceDirect.

Photo of Elyas Bakhtiari. Used with permission.

14.3. Bivariate Data Analysis: Crosstabulations and Chi-Square

Woman in a brown dress praying with her arms raised, by Luis Quintero, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Pumpkins of different sizes, by Nathan J. Hilton, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Null Hypothesis, by Randall Munroe, via XKCD. Used under a CC BY-NC 2.5 license.

Breakdown of healthcare behaviors by level of literacy (Table 2). Source: Kimunai, Eunice, Salome Kapella-Mshigeni, and Peter Anderson. 2016. “Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission, Literacy, Ethnicity, Education, and Wealth in Kenya.” International Journal of Childbirth Education 31(2):8–17. Courtesy of the International Childbirth Education Association.

15. Materials-Based Methods

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone, which is used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Tired woman in the library, by Ron Lach, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

Athletes at a starting line, by Gaby Lopez, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

15.1. Content Analysis

Bond girls compilation, by MachoCarioca, via Wikimedia Commons. Used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 license.

Breakdown of expert quotes on police shootings (Table 3). Source: Crichlow, Vaughn J., and Christopher Fulcher. 2017. “Black Men Down: An Assessment of Experts’ Quotes on Deadly Encounters with Police.” Race and Social Problems 9(3):171–80. Courtesy of Springer.

Mural featuring Colin Kaepernick on Austin’s Fourth Street, by Lars Plougmann, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license.

Excerpt from coding instructions. Source: Neuendorf, Kimberly A., Thomas D. Gore, Amy Dalessandro, Patricie Janstova, and Sharon Snyder-Suhy. 2010. “Shaken and Stirred: A Content Analysis of Women’s Portrayals in James Bond Films.” Sex Roles 62(11):747–61. Courtesy of Springer.

Inter-coder reliability results (Table 2) from a journal article. Source: Neuendorf, Kimberly A., Thomas D. Gore, Amy Dalessandro, Patricie Janstova, and Sharon Snyder-Suhy. 2010. “Shaken and Stirred: A Content Analysis of Women’s Portrayals in James Bond Films.” Sex Roles 62(11):747–61. Courtesy of Springer.

Frequencies of qualitative codes in student comments (Table 3) for a journal article. Source: Chambers, Tony, and Ching-Hsiao Chiang. 2012. “Understanding Undergraduate Students’ Experience: A Content Analysis Using NSSE Open-Ended Comments as an Example.” Quality and Quantity 46(4):1113–23. Courtesy of Springer.

Graph illustrating views about  marriage norms in U.S. women’s magazines over the twentieth century (Figure 1). Source: Cancian, Francesca M., and Steven L. Gordon. 1988. “Changing Emotion Norms in Marriage: Love and Anger in U.S. Women’s Magazines since 1900.” Gender and Society 2(3):308–42. Courtesy of Sage.

Bar graph illustrating the relationship between gender and scouting activity type (Figure 1). Source: Denny, Kathleen E. 2011. “Gender in Context, Content, and Approach: Comparing Gender Messages in Girl Scout and Boy Scout Handbooks.” Gender and Society 25(1):27–47. Courtesy of Sage.

Crosstabulation of the relationship between gender category and color palette of toys sold on the Disney Store website (Table 2). Source: Auster, Carol J., and Claire S. Mansbach. 2012. “The Gender Marketing of Toys: An Analysis of Color and Type of Toy on the Disney Store Website.” Sex Roles 67(7):375–88. Courtesy of Springer.

A page from Anne Lister’s diary (1832). Courtesy of Calderdale Museums, via My Learning. Used under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license.

A. Presenting, Writing, and Publishing

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone, which is used under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Gold iPhone 7 on top of a book, by Jessica Lewis/thepaintedsquare, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license. Adapted by Bizhan Khodabandeh. Modifications include cropping and recoloring the image.

A.1. Deciding What to Share and with Whom to Share It

Woman writing in her notebook, by RF._.studio, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Cover of the book The War on Normal People: The Truth About America’s Disappearing Jobs and Why Universal Basic Income Is Our Future (2018), by Andrew Yang, published by Hachette.

Screenshot of an Atlantic article, “Living in an Extreme Meritocracy Is Exhausting” (October 26, 2016), by Victor Tan Chen.

Screenshot of a New York Times article, “Who Killed the Knapp Family?” (January 9. 2020), by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn.

Screenshot of an Atlantic article, “The Spiritual Crisis of the Modern Economy” (December 21, 2016), by Victor Tan Chen.

A.2. Presenting Your Research

Katherine K. Chen presenting at the 2022 SASE conference in Amsterdam, by Victor Tan Chen.

People sitting around a round table, by the Gender Spectrum Collection, via Vice Media. Used under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.

Logos of the American Sociological Association, Midwest Sociological Society,  Pacific Sociological Association, Rural Sociological Society, Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics, and Southern Sociological Society.

A.3. Writing Up Your Work for Other Scholars

Pages from a journal article. Source: Davis, Daniel, and Amy Binder. 2019. “Industry, Firm, Job Title: The Layered Nature of Early-Career Advantage for Graduates of Elite Private Universities.” Socius 5:2378023119859711. Courtesy of Sage.

Presentation of hypotheses in a journal article. Source: Schneider, Daniel, Orestes P. Hastings, and Joe LaBriola. 2018. “Income Inequality and Class Divides in Parental Investments.” American Sociological Review 83(3):475–507. Courtesy of Sage.

A reference list in a journal article. Source: South, Scott J., and Lei Lei. 2021. “Why Are Fewer Young Adults Having Casual Sex?” Socius 7:2378023121996854. Courtesy of Sage.

Photo of Stephen Ambrose, by Jim Wallace, Smithsonian Institution, via Flickr. Used under a CC BY 2.0 license.

Photo of Doris Kearns Goodwin, by Rhododendrites, via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.

A.4. Reaching Your Intended Audience

People at a concert, by Vishnu R Nair, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

The White House, by Aaron Kittredge, via Pexels. Used under the Pexels license.

Screenshot of the Atlantic article “The Lonely Poverty of America’s White Working Class” (January 16, 2016), by Victor Tan Chen.