Note: Attributions for photographs are listed in the order in which they appear in the chapter. If not otherwise stated, material is used under the doctrine of fair use.

1. Introduction

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Grayscale photo of people at a market, by Danilo Ugaddan, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

People watching dancers in traditional clothing, by Mio Advincula, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Engraved portrait of Isaac Newton, by an unknown artist, is public domain and available at Wikimedia Commons. Modifications included recoloring the image.

1.1. The World according to Science

Still image of Leave it to Beaver, © Universal, is available at IMDb.

Still image of The Simpsons, © Walt Disney Studios, is available at CNET.

Still image of A Christmas Story (1983), © Time Warner, is available at PhillyVoice.

Roast ham, by Tim Sackton, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

Optical-glass triangular prism, by Dobromir Hristov, is licensed under a Pexels license.

1.2. Sociology as a Social Science

Man in red robe sitting beside green metal fence, by Minh N, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Post by @neiltyson, © Neil deGrasse Tyson, is available at X.

Book cover on the left is from Cut Loose: Jobless and Hopeless in an Unfair Economy (2015), by Victor Tan Chen, © University of California Press.

Book cover in the middle is from A Company of One: Insecurity, Independence, and the New World of White-Collar Unemployment (2011), by Carrie M. Lane, © Cornell University Press.

Book cover on the right is from The End of the Line: Lost Jobs, New Lives in Postindustrial America (1997), by Kathryn Marie Dudley, © University of Chicago Press.

Two girls using laptops surrounded by their classmates, by Max Fischer, is licensed under a Pexels license.

1.3. Design and Goals of This Textbook

People working on building during daytime, by Josue Isai Ramos Figueroa, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

2. Using Sociology in Everyday Life

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

People walking near a white building, by Sachith Ravishka Kodikara, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Graphs of performance analytics on a laptop screen, by Luke Chesser, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

2.1. Sociologists as Scholars

Man standing in front of people sitting on red chairs, by the ICSA, is licensed under a Pexels license.

M. Paola Ometto and Carly Offidani-Bertrand presenting at the 2022 Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics (SASE) conference in Amsterdam, by Victor Tan Chen, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

“Thesis Defense,” by Randall Munroe, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at XKCD.

2.2. Sociologists as Market Researchers

Women colleagues gathered inside a conference room, by Christina Morillo, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Woman looking at a computer monitor, by the Politécnico Grancolombiano Departamento de Comunicaciones, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

2.3. Sociologists as Policy Advisors and Evaluators

Photo of Patrick Moynihan, by John Mathew Smith, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Ronald Reagan’s presidential portrait (1981), is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Portrait of Michelle Obama in the Green Room of the White House, by Chuck Kennedy, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Report cover, © Data Foundation, is from one of its publications. Source: Williams, Stacey, Lori Gonzalez, Phylicia Bediako, Minnie McMillian, Alice Quach, and Austin Hepburn. 2022. “Understanding Policing in America.” Washington, DC: Data Foundation.

Headquarters building of the U.S. Census Bureau in Suitland, Maryland, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Logos in the collage are © American Sociological Association, Idealist.org, PublicServiceCareers.org, USAJobs, and the Young Nonprofit Professionals Network.

CWA Local 9119 (AFL-CIO) on strike, by Amgine, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 1.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Logos in the collage are © Brookings Institution, Cato Institute, Center for American Progress, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, Economic Policy Institute, Heritage Foundation, and Manhattan Institute.

Report cover, © Pew Charitable Trusts, is from a Pew Research Center publication. Source: Nadeem, Reem. 2022. “Modest Declines in Positive Views of ‘Socialism’ and ‘Capitalism’ in U.S. Pew Research Center.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.

2.4. Sociologists as Clinicians and Public Health Researchers

Photo of Jane Addams has no copyright restrictions and is available from the George Grantham Bain Collection at the U.S. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division [LC-B2- 6531-14].

Works Progress Administration poster advertising Hull House community workshop (1938) is public domain and is available at the U.S. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZC2-5215].

2.5. Sociologists as Activists and Change Agents

Photo of Martin Luther King Jr. has no copyright restrictions and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Photo of W. E. B. Du Bois (circa 1907) is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Map of the distribution of African American inhabitants of the Seventh Ward of Philadelphia, from The Philadelphia Negro (1899) by W. E. B. DuBois, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Photo of Sarah Dewees is used with permission.

2.6. Sociologists as Professionals and Citizens

A woman reporting beside the van, by cottonbro studio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Camels advertisement (1946) is available at Stanford Research into the Impact of Tobacco Advertising (SRITA).

3. The Role of Theory in Research

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Close-up photo of survey spreadsheet, by Lukas, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Colorful dolls on display, by Marc Tollas, is licensed under a Pexels license.

3.1. What Do We Mean by “Theory”?

Shallow-focus photo of woman smiling while holding pen and paper, by Andrea Piacquadio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

3.2. Levels of Analysis

Macro, meso, and micro levels of analysis, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Homeless man sleeping near a cardboard sign, by Timur Weber, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Photo of Chinyere Osuji is used with permission.

3.3. The Components of Theories

Person riding a horse, by Brett Sayles, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Family having a picnic, by Kampus Production, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Woman and girl talking while lying on bed, by Ketut Subiyanto, is licensed under a Pexels license.

People clapping their hands while seated on a sofa, by cottonbro studio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

The theoretical and empirical levels of research, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

The relationships between concepts, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Close-up photo of old machinery, by Tima Miroshnichenko, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Charts illustrating spurious correlations, by Tyler Vigen, is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license and is available at Spurious Correlations.

Screenshot of S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat is licensed under a GNU Free Documentation license and is available from GSC Game World via Wikimedia Commons.

American pitbull terrier puppy lying on the floor, by Joice Rivas, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Screenshot of a Daily Mail photo, © Jason Galvin, and an article, “Army Veteran Rescues Bald Eagle Dangling Upside Down from a Rope in 75-Foot Tree by ‘Mowing Down the Branches’ with his Rifle,” by Valerie Edwards, © Daily Mail and General Trust, are available at Reddit.

Hygge book on a blanket, by Stella Rose, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

3.4. Evaluating Theories

Protest against pandemic measures in Liestal, Switzerland, by Kajetan Sumila, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Portrait of William of Ockham is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

3.5. Major Sociological Theories and Paradigms

Group huddling on a grass field, by Anastasia Shuraeva, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Man pointing his finger, by Nathan Shively, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Portrait of Thomas Kuhn, by Davi.trip, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Man with red-dyed hair, a pink shirt, and tinted glasses, by Reymon Reymon, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Photo of Auguste Comte, by Johan Hendrik Hoffmeister, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Photo of Émile Durkheim is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Photo of Paul Lazarsfeld, © Bardwell Press, is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Person’s left hand against a white surface, by Elena Rabkina, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Photo of Max Horkheimer, by Barbara Niggl Radloff, is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons. Modifications included cropping.

Photo of Nancy Fraser, by Bunnyfrosch, is licensed under CC ShareAlike 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic licenses and is available at Wikimedia Commons. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

3.6. Linking Theory and Data

Photo of Albert Einstein, by Orren Jack Turner, has no known copyright restrictions and is available at Wikimedia Commons. Modifications included cropping.

Photo of Stephen Hawking, by Doug Wheller, is licensed under a CC BY 2.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

4. Research Questions

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Brown wooden bookshelves with books, by Olena Bohovyk, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

4.1. Choosing a General Research Topic

People gathered near building holding LGBTQ+ flags, by Gotta Be Worth It, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Model of multiple railroad tracks, by Google DeepMind, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Photo of Joyce Rothschild, by Gabriela León-Pérez, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Man holding black DSLR camera, by Suliman Sllehi, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Example of a concept map, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

4.2. Types of Research Questions

Still image of The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie (2004), © Nickelodeon, is available at IMDb.

Asian friends with tattoos, by Khoa Võ, is licensed under a Pexels license.

4.3. Posing Explanatory Research Questions

The wheel of science, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Deduction: from abstract to concrete, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Rally to stop Asian hate, McPherson Square, Washington, DC (March 21, 2021), by Victoria Pickering, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

Induction: from concrete to abstract, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

The Usual Irish Way of Doing Things, by Thomas Nast, published in Harper’s Weekly on September 2, 1871, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Screenshot of a Reddit post, “I Had a Science Fair Activity Tonight,” © whiteinshiningarmor, is available at Reddit.

4.4. Refining Your Research Question

Multiethnic family with a baby at home, by William Fortunato, is licensed under a Pexels license.

5. Research Design

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Magnifying glass on top of a document, by Anna Nekrashevich, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

5.1. What Should My Literature Review Cover?

“Mind the Gap” warning at a train station, by raghavvidya, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

Stack of hardbound books, by cottonbro studio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

5.2. What Sources Should I Use?

Man researching alone at the library, by Tima Miroshnichenko, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Meme about Reviewer 2, © xixoxixa, is available at Reddit.

Wikipedia logo, by Nohat (concept by Paullusmagnus), is licensed under a CC BY-SA 3.0 license.

5.3. How Do I Find Relevant Sources?

Low-angle photo of white bookshelves, by CHUTTERSNAP, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

5.4. How Do I Read and Evaluate Sources?

Post by @SciBry, © Brian Gaensler, is available at X.

Man working on laptop and taking notes, by Ono Kosuki, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Literature review matrix, @ Kelsey Cheshire, is available at the VCU Libraries website.

Signpost, by Zoe Davidson, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

5.5. How Do I Write a Literature Review?

Assorted beans placed in rows on white fabric, by Mariam Antadze, is licensed under a Pexels license.

6. Sampling

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Peeled tangerine, by Karolina Kaboompics, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Photomontage of faces, by Gerd Altmann, is licensed under a Pixabay license.

6.1. Units of Analysis

Man with a backpack looking through binoculars, by Rory McKeever, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Units of analysis, populations and samples, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Person using a magnifying glass on a map, by lil artsy, is licensed under a Pexels license.

6.2. Populations versus Samples

People sitting on stadium seats, by Anna Sullivan, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Man standing in front of group of men, by Austin Distel, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Person flipping through the pages of a book, by Brittany Colette, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Target populations and sampling frames, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Respondents versus nonrespondents, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

6.3. Probability Sampling

Kid holding candies, by Patrick Fore, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Left hand playing with dice, by Guillermo Velarde, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Systematic sampling, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

An example of periodicity when using systematic sampling, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Examples of proportionate and disproportionate stratified sampling: racial and ethnic groups in Richmond, Virginia, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

An example of cluster sampling: surveying public librarians in Virginia, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

6.4. Nonprobability Sampling

Six assorted-flavor donuts, by Heather Ford, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

People queuing beside a Louis Vuitton store, by Melanie Pongratz, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Snowball sampling, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Example of quota sampling, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Harry S. Truman holding the Chicago Daily Tribune, by Byron H. Rollins, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

The Man burns at Burning Man 2014, by torroid, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

Flight attendants standing in the aisle of an airplane, by Vinh Lâm, is licensed under a Pexels license.

6.5. Questions to Ask about Samples

“Sampling Bias,” by Jono Hey, is licensed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and is available at Sketchplanations.

Post by @elonmusk, © Elon Musk, is available at X.

7. Measuring the Social world

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Earth from afar, by NASA, is public domain and is available at the NASA Earth Observatory. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

The conceptualization-operationalization-measurement (COM) process, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

7.1. Operationalizing a Concept

Still image of the movie The Marine (2006), © 20th Century Fox, is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Cleaner holding a bag with plastic bottles, by Xavier Messina, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Photo of Mollie Orshansky is public domain and is available from the Social Security Administration History Archives via Wikimedia Commons.

Book cover is from The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (1996), by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, © Simon & Schuster and Princeton University Press.

7.2. Deciding on the Correct Level of Measurement

German shepherd lying on the ground, by Summer Stock, is licensed under a Pexels license. Yorkshire terrier in a party hat, by Sam Lion, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping.

Ordinal level of measurement example: perceived health, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

The hierarchy of levels of measurement, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Temperature scales, by Emeka Udenze, is licensed under a CC0 1.0 Universal license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

7.3. Indexes and Scales: Measures with Multiple Items

Image of the Social Progress Index component-level framework, © Social Progress Imperative, is from a report. Source: Stern, Scott, Jaromir Harmacek, Petra Krylova, and Mohamed Htitich. 2022. “2022 Social Progress Index Methodology Report.” Washington, DC: Social Progress Imperative.

7.4. Measurement Quality

Assorted wine bottles, by Chris F, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Couple relaxing in a jacuzzi, by Ron Lach, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Comparing reliability and validity, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Man washing his hands, by Ketut Subiyanto, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Photo of L. Douglas Wilder is public domain and is available from the National Institutes of Health via Wikimedia Commons. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Photo of Tom Bradley, by Bob Chamberlin, is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license and is available from the Los Angeles Times via the UCLA Library. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Women holding Trump banners, by Michael Anthony, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Photo of Matthew Desmond is public domain and available from the U.S. Library of Congress via Wikimedia Commons.

8. Ethics

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Balance scale on a table, by Katrin Bolovtsova, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Guard with sunglasses, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, is used with permission for noncommercial purposes and is available at PrisonExp.org.

Rebellious prisoners, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, is used with permission for noncommercial purposes and is available at PrisonExp.org.

Prisoner 819 leaves the study, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, is used with permission for noncommercial purposes and is available at PrisonExp.org.

8.1. Subject to Harm: Coercion, Deception, and Other Risks for Participants

African American male being tested and treated during the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male is public domain and is available from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention via Wikimedia Commons.

Romani victim of Nazi medical experiments is public domain and is available from the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration via the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum.

Still image of the movie Wormwood (2017), © Netflix, is available at the New York Review.

Page from the declassified documents of Project MKUltra is public domain and available at Wikimedia Commons.

Defendants in the dock at the Nuremberg war crimes tribunal, by Raymond D’Addario, is public domain and available at Wikimedia Commons.

Sketch of Ted Kaczynski, by Jeanne Boylan, is public domain and available from the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation via NPR.

Still image from The Simpsons episode “Family Therapy” (1989), © Walt Disney Company, is available at IMDb.

Book cover is from Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Spaces (2008), by Laud Humphreys, © Routledge.

8.2. The Belmont Principles: Respect for Persons, Beneficence, and Justice

Cover page of The Belmont Report (1979), by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, is public domain and available at the University of North Texas Digital Library.

Logo of Cambridge Analytica is licensed under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

1956 mugshot of James “Whitey” Bulger is public domain and is available from USP Atlanta via Wikimedia Commons.

2011 mugshot of Bulger is public domain and is available from the U.S. Marshals Service via Wikimedia Commons.

Photo of Ronald Kessler and Mark Felt is licensed under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Animal Liberation Front Israel protest in Tel Aviv (September 8, 2016), by Roee Shpernik, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Meme of Donald Trump, adapted from an interview by Jonathan Swan, © Axios, is available at Know Your Meme.

8.3. Regulating Research: Institutional Review Boards and Professional Norms

Screenshot of an institutional review board website, © Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU), is available at the VCU website.

Logo, © American Sociological Association (ASA), is available at the ASA website.

8.4. Veracity and Objectivity in Research

Still image from the movie Inside Job (2010), © Sony Pictures Classics, is available at IMDb.

The Terrible Inspection (circa 1947), by Huang Rong-can, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Prisoners facing the wall, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, is used with permission for noncommercial purposes and is available at PrisonExp.org.

Photo of Didem Danış is used with permission.

9. Ethnography

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone. Both sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Close-up photo of a person, by Marina Vitale, is licensed under an Unsplash license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

A couple fighting, by Timur Weber, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Police officer standing near bare trees, by Kindel Media, is licensed under a Pexels license.

9.1. When and How to Use Ethnography

Two senior Inuits talking outdoors, by Александр Велигура, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Cockfighting (circa 1958) is public domain and is available from the Indonesian Ministry of Information via Wikimedia Commons.

Person holding meat and a knife, by Leonardo Luz, is licensed under a Pexels license.

The participation continuum, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Still image from the Looney Tunes episode “Mad as a Mars Hare,” © Warner Bros., is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Still image from the South Park episode “Going Native” (2012), © Comedy Central, is available at IMDB.

9.2. Going into the Field

AddUpDog letterhead, by Elijah Kai Chen, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Sorority Bid Day, by Henderson State University, is licensed under a CC BY-NC 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

The disclosure continuum, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Survivalist with a bow and backpack standing in a mountain pasture, by Jordan Bergendahl, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Photo of Margaret Mead has no known copyright restrictions and is available from the Smithsonian Institution via Flickr.

Photo of Amy L. Best is used with permission.

9.3. Field Jottings and Field Notes

Book pages are from Cut Loose: Jobless and Hopeless in an Unfair Economy (2015), by Victor Tan Chen, © University of California Press.

Women using mobile phones, by Brett Sayles, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Woman in a checkered suit conducting an interview, by Tima Miroshnichenko, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Man beside a truck, by the World Sikh Organization of Canada, is licensed under a Pexels license.

10. In-Depth Interviewing

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Woman talking to a radio host, by George Milton, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Sara Rathod interviews Linda Wertheimer after a debate Wertheimer moderated at Wellesley College, by Graham Milldrum, is licensed under a CC BY 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

10.1. When Should In-Depth Interviewing Be Used?

Crying toddler holding a banana, by Quinn Dombrowski, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

10.2. Creating Interview Guides

“Prefer Open-Ended Questions,” by Jono Hey, is licensed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and is available at Sketchplanations.

10.3. Preparing for In-Depth Interviews

Interviewing workers at the Hongcheon pinenut processing factory, by Ramon Carrillo, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 license and is available from the Asia-Pacific Forest Communicator Network via Flickr.

10.4. Conducting In-Depth Interviews

“Don’t Fill the Silence,” by Jono Hey, is licensed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and is available at Sketchplanations.

Peer editing during a writer’s workshop, by Tim Lauer, is licensed under a CC BY-NC 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

Photo of Allison Pugh, by Dan Addison, is used with permission.

10.5. Focus Groups

Grayscale photo of man in a black snapback hat, by Marcus Bellamy, is licensed used under an Unsplash license.

11. Qualitative Data Analysis

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, and Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee,. Both sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Scattered letter blocks, by Suzy Hazelwood, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

11.1. Coding Qualitative Data

Assorted colored stones in wooden containers, by julie aagaard, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Logos in the collage are © ATLAS.ti Scientific Software Development GmbH (ATLAS.ti), SocioCultural Research Consultants (Dedoose), VERBI Software (MaxQDA), Lumivero (NVivo), and Provalis Research (QDA Miner).

Grayscale photo of a man smashing bricks, by Alexa Popovich, is licensed under a Pexels license. Modifications included cropping.

Brick layer in Tel Aviv, by Zoltan Kluger, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons. Modifications included cropping.

Article page, © Oxford Academic, is from a journal article. Source: Chen, Victor Tan, and Jesse Goldstein. 2024. “The Theatre of Entrepreneurship: Learning to Perform the Speculative Self in University Entrepreneurship Programs.” Social Problems 71(1):203–19. doi: 10.1093/socpro/spac008.

Photo of Leslie Martin is courtesy of the University of Mary Washington.

11.2. Creating Arguments out of Codes

Representation of the evolution of the universe over 13.77 billion years, by NASA/WMAP Science Team, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Meme with a still image from the movie Mean Girls (2004), © Paramount, is available at Fandom.

Two-by-two table, © Wiley, is from a journal article. Source: Doody, Sean, Victor Tan Chen, and Jesse Goldstein. 2016. “Varieties of Entrepreneurial Capitalism: The Culture of Entrepreneurship and Structural Inequalities of Work and Business Creation.” Sociology Compass 10(10):858–76. doi: 10.1111/soc4.12407.

Diagram representing a typology, by Victor Tan Chen, is based on material from a handbook chapter and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Source: Chen, Victor Tan. 2021. “The Mirage of Meritocracy and the Morality of Grace.” Pp. 58–72 in The Routledge Handbook on the American Dream. Vol. 1, edited by R. C. Hauhart and M. Sardoč. New York: Routledge.

Concept map representing relationships among variables, by Victor Tan Chen, is based on material from a journal article and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Source: Dinesen, Peter Thisted, Merlin Schaeffer, and Kim Mannemar Sønderskov. 2020. “Ethnic Diversity and Social Trust: A Narrative and Meta-Analytical Review.” Annual Review of Political Science 23(1):441–65. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-052918-020708.

11.3. Writing Up Qualitative Results

Close-up photo of a burger, by Vilnis Husko, is licensed under a Pexels license. Modifications included cropping.

Twin girls smiling, by cottonbro studio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Blockquotes, © Sage, are from a journal article. Source: Ravenelle, Alexandrea J., Abigail Newell, and Ken Cai Kowalski. 2021. “‘The Looming, Crazy Stalker Coronavirus’: Fear Mongering, Fake News, and the Diffusion of Distrust.” Socius 7:23780231211024776. doi: 10.1177/23780231211024776.

Family preparing food in the kitchen, by August de Richelieu, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Book excerpts are from Cut Loose: Jobless and Hopeless in an Unfair Economy (2015), by Victor Tan Chen, © University of California Press.

12. Experiments

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Scientific Inquiry in Social Work (2018), by Matthew DeCarlo, Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, and Research Methods in Psychology (2015), by Rajiv S. Jhangiani and I-Chant A. Chiang. All sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Two test tubes, by Martin Lopez, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Still image from the Mythbusters episode “President’s Challenge,” © Discovery Channel, is available at NPR.

12.1. Pre-experimental Designs: What You Should Not Do

Boy in a white lab coat holding an eye dropper, by Clint Patterson, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

AddUpDog logo, by Elijah Kai Chen, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

One-group posttest-only design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

One-group pre-post design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Two-group pretest–posttest design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Apples and oranges on a plaid blanket, by Anastasiya Romanova, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Ad for participants, by the Stanford Prison Experiment, is used with permission for noncommercial purposes and is available at PrisonExp.org.

12.2. Randomized Controlled Designs: What You Should Do

A classic experiment: two-group randomized pre-post design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Still image from the Star Trek episode “The City on the Edge of Forever” (1967), © CBS/Paramount, is available at Trek Report.

Two-group randomized pre-post design with scores (math app example), by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

12.3. Persistent Validity Problems: What You Still Need to Avoid

Pygmalion Adoring His Statue (1717), by Jean Raoux, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Pregnant woman typing on a laptop, by Pavel Danilyuk, is licensed under a Pexels license.

White pill on a yellow surface, by Karolina Grabowska, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Young man working on a laptop and writing notes, by Michael Burrows, is licensed used under a Pexels license.

Two-group randomized posttest-only design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

12.4. Field Experiments: External Validity at the Cost of Control

Police officer putting handcuffs on another person, by Kindel Media, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Outcomes at 24 years or older for children who moved before they were 13: an analysis of Moving to Opportunity data, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is based on material from a news article and journal article and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Graphic adapted from source: Wolfers, Justin. 2015. “Why the New Research on Mobility Matters: An Economist’s View.” New York Times, May 4. Data updated from source: Chetty, Raj, Nathaniel Hendren, and Lawrence F. Katz. 2016. “The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children: New Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment.” American Economic Review 106(4):855–902. doi: 10.1257/aer.20150572.

Handshake, by Thirdman, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Appointments obtained for mental health therapy by the class, race, and gender of the help-seeker: an audit study, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is based on material in a journal article and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Source: Kugelmass, Heather. 2016. “‘Sorry, I’m Not Accepting New Patients’: An Audit Study of Access to Mental Health Care.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 57(2):1–16. doi: 10.1177/0022146516647098.

The effect of a criminal record on black and white job applicants: an audit study, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is based on material in a journal article and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Source: Pager, Devah. 2003. “The Mark of a Criminal Record.” American Journal of Sociology 108(5):937–75. doi: 10.1086/374403.

Sitting woman in a striped jacket shaking hands with someone standing, by the RDNE Stock Project, is licensed under a Pexels license.

12.5. Quasi-experiments: Approximating True Experiments with Observational Data

Twin girls holding red and yellow skateboards, by cottonbro studio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Nonequivalent control group design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Graph illustrating the effects of the CESSP Scholarship Program on school attainment, © Deon Filmer and Norbert Schady, is from a working paper. Source: Filmer, Deon, and Norbert Schady. 2009. “School Enrollment, Selection, and Test Scores.” Policy Research Working Paper No. 4998, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Demolished residential buildings, by Franklin Peña Gutierrez, is licensed under a Pexels license.

The logic of the differences-in-differences method in a minimum-wage study, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is based on material from a journal article and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Source: Card, David, and Alan Krueger. 1994. “Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.” American Economic Review 84(4):772–93.

Barack Obama delivering a speech at the Washington National Cathedral, by Jose A. Torres Jr., is public domain and is available from the U.S. Department of Defense via Wikimedia Commons.

Automobiles destroyed by the Oklahoma City bombing, by Preston Chasteen, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

One-group time-series design, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Time-series outcome when the treatment has an effect, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Graph (Figure 1a) illustrating the Oklahoma County general fertility rate over time, © Springer, is from a journal article. Source: Rodgers, Joseph Lee, Craig A. St John, and Ronnie Coleman. 2005. “Did Fertility Go up after the Oklahoma City Bombing? An Analysis of Births in Metropolitan Counties in Oklahoma, 1990-1999.” Demography 42(4):675–92. doi: 10.1353/dem.2005.0034.

Multiple time-series design with two comparison groups, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

12.6. Experiments: Our Best Way of Inferring Causality, but Far from Foolproof

Two girls eating cookies, by cottonbro studio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

13. Surveys

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone, and Research Methods in Psychology (2015), by Rajiv S. Jhangiani and I-Chant A. Chiang. All sources are licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Woman reading papers, by cottonbro studio, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Photo of Shirley Chisholm, by Thomas J. O’Halloran, has no known copyright restrictions and is available at the U.S. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division [LC-U9- 25383-33].

13.1. The Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research

Cover of U.S. News & World Report’s 2022 edition of “Best Colleges Ranking,” © U.S. News & World Report LP, is available at Wikipedia.

Annoyed woman having a video chat on her smartphone at home, by Alex Green, is licensed under a Pexels license.

13.2. Types of Surveys

SAG-AFTRA strike rally, by Eden, Janine and Jim, is licensed under a CC BY 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

Section of the 1890 U.S. Census form is public domain and is available from the U.S. Census Bureau.

Letter regarding the 2023 Survey of Doctorate Recipients is public domain and is available from the National Science Foundation.

13.3. Designing Effective Questions and Questionnaires

Table summarizing results from three separate but similarly worded questions, © Pew Charitable Trusts, is from a Pew Research Center report. Source: Tyson, Alec, and Carroll Doherty. 2013. “Polling on the Deficit: Why Question Order Matters.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.

Question for a survey interviewer, © NORC, is from a 2022 General Social Survey (GSS) questionnaire and is available at the GSS website.

Table on the impact of question ordering, © Pew Charitable Trusts, is from a Pew Research Center report. Source: Tyson, Alec, and Carroll Doherty. 2013. “Polling on the Deficit: Why Question Order Matters.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.

Question about family income, © NORC, is from a 2022 GSS questionnaire and is available at the GSS website.

Excerpt of survey for the 2016 U.S. presidential candidates, © Global Tetrahedron, is from an Onion article. Source: The Onion. 2016. “‘The Onion’ Is Withholding Our Endorsement for President until Both Candidates Respond to Our Questionnaire.” The Onion, October 12.

Double-barreled response options, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Excerpt of survey questions in a matrix format, © Mexican Migration Project, is available via Princeton University.

Excerpt of filter questions from the 2016 Survey of Consumer Finances questionnaire is public domain and available from the U.S. Federal Reserve.

14. Quantitative Data Analysis

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken from Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices (2019), by Anol Bhattacherjee, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Colorful plastic numbers and mathematical symbols, by Karolina Grabowska, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Still image from the Schoolhouse Rock episode “Ready or Not Here I Come” (1973), © Scholastic Rock, Inc./ABC, is available at Schoolhouse Rock Fandom.

Logo of SPSS, © IBM, is available at the SPSS website.

14.1. Preparing for Data Analysis

Codebook excerpt from the LIFE Dataset, © Mexican Migration Project, is available via Princeton University.

Levels of measurement, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Two people’s hands touching, by Alexander Grey, is licensed under an Unsplash license.

Close-up photo of a computer mining rig, by panumas nikhomkhai, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Screenshot of a data repository, © Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR), is available at the ICPSR website.

Screenshot of the GSS Data Explorer, © NORC, is available at the GSS website.

Excerpt from a 2022 GSS questionnaire, © NORC, is available at the GSS website.

14.2. Univariate Data Analysis: Analyzing One Variable at a Time

Breaking down a frequency table, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Businessman holding money in his hands, by Andrea Piacquadio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

People on a cliff watching a man dive into the sea, by Kammeran Gonzalez-Keola, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Elderly person holding a stress ball as someone touches their wrist, by Matthias Zomer, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Breakdown of a sample’s demographic characteristics (Table 1), © ScienceDirect, is from a journal article. Source: Lee, Bob, Yiwei Chen, and Lynne Hewitt. 2011. “Age Differences in Constraints Encountered by Seniors in Their Use of Computers and the Internet.” Computers in Human Behavior 27(3):1231–37. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2011.01.003.

Photo of Elyas Bakhtiari is used with permission.

14.3. Bivariate Data Analysis: Crosstabulations and Chi-Square

Woman in a brown dress praying with her arms raised, by Luis Quintero, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Pumpkins of different sizes, by Nathan J. Hilton, is licensed under a Pexels license.

“Null Hypothesis,” by Randall Munroe, is licensed under a CC BY-NC 2.5 license and is available at XKCD.

Breakdown of healthcare behaviors by level of literacy (Table 2), © International Childbirth Education Association, is from a journal article. Source: Kimunai, Eunice, Salome Kapella-Mshigeni, and Peter Anderson. 2016. “Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission, Literacy, Ethnicity, Education, and Wealth in Kenya.” International Journal of Childbirth Education 31(2):8–17.

15. Materials-Based Methods

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Tired woman in the library, by Ron Lach, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

Athletes at a starting line, by Gaby Lopez, is licensed under a Pexels license.

15.1. Content Analysis

Bond girls compilation, by MachoCarioca, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 3.0 license and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

Breakdown of expert quotes on police shootings (Table 3), © Springer, is from a journal article. Source: Crichlow, Vaughn J., and Christopher Fulcher. 2017. “Black Men Down: An Assessment of Experts’ Quotes on Deadly Encounters with Police.” Race and Social Problems 9(3):171–80. doi: 10.1007/s12552-017-9197-x.

Mural featuring Colin Kaepernick on Austin’s Fourth Street, by Lars Plougmann, is licensed under a CC BY-SA 2.0 license and is available at Flickr.

Excerpt from coding instructions, © Springer, is from a journal article. Source: Neuendorf, Kimberly A., Thomas D. Gore, Amy Dalessandro, Patricie Janstova, and Sharon Snyder-Suhy. 2010. “Shaken and Stirred: A Content Analysis of Women’s Portrayals in James Bond Films.” Sex Roles 62(11):747–61. doi: 10.1007/s11199-009-9644-2.

Table of inter-coder reliability results (Table 2), © Springer, is from a journal article. Source: Neuendorf, Kimberly A., Thomas D. Gore, Amy Dalessandro, Patricie Janstova, and Sharon Snyder-Suhy. 2010. “Shaken and Stirred: A Content Analysis of Women’s Portrayals in James Bond Films.” Sex Roles 62(11):747–61. doi: 10.1007/s11199-009-9644-2.

Table of frequencies of qualitative codes in student comments (Table 3), © Springer, is from a journal article. Source: Chambers, Tony, and Ching-Hsiao Chiang. 2012. “Understanding Undergraduate Students’ Experience: A Content Analysis Using NSSE Open-Ended Comments as an Example.” Quality and Quantity 46(4):1113–23. doi: 10.1007/s11135-011-9549-3.

Graph illustrating views about  marriage norms in U.S. women’s magazines over the twentieth century (Figure 1), © Sage, is from a journal article. Source: Cancian, Francesca M., and Steven L. Gordon. 1988. “Changing Emotion Norms in Marriage: Love and Anger in U.S. Women’s Magazines since 1900.” Gender and Society 2(3):308–42. doi: 10.1177/089124388002003006.

Bar graph illustrating the relationship between gender and scouting activity type (Figure 1), © Sage, is from a journal article. Source: Denny, Kathleen E. 2011. “Gender in Context, Content, and Approach: Comparing Gender Messages in Girl Scout and Boy Scout Handbooks.” Gender and Society 25(1):27–47. doi: 10.1177/0891243210390517.

Crosstabulation of the relationship between gender category and color palette of toys sold on the Disney Store website (Table 2), © Springer, is from a journal article. Source: Auster, Carol J., and Claire S. Mansbach. 2012. “The Gender Marketing of Toys: An Analysis of Color and Type of Toy on the Disney Store Website.” Sex Roles 67(7):375–88. doi: 10.1007/s11199-012-0177-8.

Page from Anne Lister’s diary (1832) is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license and is available from the Calderdale Museums via My Learning.

A. Presenting, Writing, and Publishing

This chapter includes original material, as well as material taken Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods (2012), by Amy Blackstone, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

Images from beginning of chapter:

Gold iPhone 7 on top of a book, by Jessica Lewis/thepaintedsquare, is licensed under a Pexels license. The adapted image, by Bizhan Khodabandeh, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Modifications included cropping and recoloring.

A.1. Deciding What to Share and with Whom to Share It

Woman writing in her notebook, by RF._.studio, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Book cover is from The War on Normal People: The Truth About America’s Disappearing Jobs and Why Universal Basic Income Is Our Future (2018), by Andrew Yang, © Hachette.

Screenshot of an Atlantic article, “Living in an Extreme Meritocracy Is Exhausting” (October 26, 2016), by Victor Tan Chen, © Atlantic Media.

Screenshot of a New York Times article, “Who Killed the Knapp Family?” (January 9. 2020), by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn, © New York Times Company.

Screenshot of an Atlantic article, “The Spiritual Crisis of the Modern Economy” (December 21, 2016), by Victor Tan Chen, © Atlantic Media.

A.2. Presenting Your Research

Katherine K. Chen presenting at the 2022 SASE conference in Amsterdam, by Victor Tan Chen, is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license.

People sitting around a round table is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license and is available from the Gender Spectrum Collection via Vice Media.

Logos in the collage are © American Sociological Association, Midwest Sociological Society, Pacific Sociological Association, Rural Sociological Society, Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics, and Southern Sociological Society.

A.3. Writing Up Your Work for Other Scholars

Featured pages, © Sage, are from a journal article. Source: Davis, Daniel, and Amy Binder. 2019. “Industry, Firm, Job Title: The Layered Nature of Early-Career Advantage for Graduates of Elite Private Universities.” Socius 5:2378023119859711. doi: 10.1177/2378023119859711.

Presentation of hypotheses, © Sage, is from a journal article. Source: Schneider, Daniel, Orestes P. Hastings, and Joe LaBriola. 2018. “Income Inequality and Class Divides in Parental Investments.” American Sociological Review 83(3):475–507. doi: 10.1177/0003122418772034.

Reference list, © Sage, is from a journal article. Source: South, Scott J., and Lei Lei. 2021. “Why Are Fewer Young Adults Having Casual Sex?” Socius 7:2378023121996854. doi: 10.1177/2378023121996854.

Photo of Stephen Ambrose, by Jim Wallace, is licensed under a CC BY 2.0 license and is available from the Smithsonian Institution via Flickr.

Photo of Doris Kearns Goodwin, by Rhododendrites, is public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons.

A.4. Reaching Your Intended Audience

People at a concert, by Vishnu R Nair, is licensed under a Pexels license.

The White House, by Aaron Kittredge, is licensed under a Pexels license.

Screenshot of the Atlantic article “The Lonely Poverty of America’s White Working Class” (January 16, 2016), by Victor Tan Chen, © Atlantic Media.