Glossary

An approach to empirical investigation in which researchers apply a particular theory to the social context they are examining and then look for deviations from that theory. (Also referred to with the terms abduction or abductive analysis.)

Periodical publications that contain scholarly papers focused on the topic or topics that the journal covers.

A form of job security granted to senior professors who are distinguished as experts in their field. Tenure makes it difficult to fire a professor and is meant to protect their ability to study and write about controversial topics.

Bias that occurs when people tend to say “yes” to whatever the researcher asks, even when doing so contradicts previous answers. (Also known as yea-saying.)

Part-time instructors or lecturers at a college or university who do not have long-term contracts with the university, but who are typically paid for each class they teach. (Colloquially known as adjuncts.)

Organizations that engage in public communications and/or lobbying to influence the views and decisions of important audiences, including policymakers and the general public. (Also known as interest groups or pressure groups.)

Field notes that attempt to explain or comment on observations in the field, rather than just describing them.

Data based on people’s personal experiences that has not been collected systematically.

When no identifying information can be linked to the specific individuals participating in a study, even by the researchers themselves.

A variety of theoretical approaches that critique positivism and its belief in the possibility of arriving at the truth of reality.

A type of research that applies scientific knowledge to a practical problem.

Expanding the coverage of a literature review by identifying any relevant work that (1) is cited in the sources already gathered (as indicated in their reference lists), or (2) cites those sources (as indicated in scholarly databases).

A specialized type of descriptive coding in which the researcher flags relevant characteristics of the case that was observed, such as demographic information for specific interviewees. Attribute coding helps the researcher describe the study sample and allows them to see potential patterns—for instance, how people with certain characteristics responded to interview questions.

Characteristics of a variable representing its different possible values or categories. For instance, “42” can be an attribute of the variable age, and Islam can be an attribute of the variable religious affiliation.

Bias that occurs when the participants who leave a study tend to come from particular subgroups, thereby undermining the representativeness of the study’s sample. (Also called mortality bias, given how test subjects in a classic scientific lab experiment would die out or otherwise leave the study.)

A method used to evaluate the rigor of qualitative research by tracing each point made in the published study back to the original data that was its basis.

A criterion for assessing the rigor of qualitative research that focuses on the extent to which researchers capture the multiple perspectives of their research participants. Fairness is a dimension of authenticity.

A socially defined source of knowledge that might shape our beliefs about what is true and what is not true.

A type of explanatory coding that involves arranging codes to describe causal relationships or hypotheses.

Research conducted for its own sake. (Also known as pure science.)

A systematic error that may make research findings inaccurate in some way. Note that the term “bias” in this context does not just refer to the researcher’s personal biases, but to anything that causes a study’s results to fail to truthfully represent reality.

When the causality in a relationship runs in both directions—that is, when changes in the first variable cause changes in the second variable, and changes in the second cause changes in the first.

Large datasets that typically have been created through automated processes (such as data generated by online platforms) and require sophisticated data-processing techniques to analyze.

An extended quotation that is indented (typically by a half-inch) to highlight it in the text.

A type of ethnographic observation in which researchers choose not to get involved in the activities or organizations they are studying, typically with the goal of being more impartial in their assessments of what they observe. (Also known as direct observation.)

Members of the sample that the researcher has gathered data on, such as the individual interviewees or organizations being studied.

Variables measured at the two lower levels of measurement, nominal and ordinal.

The process of testing, based on empirical evidence, whether changes in one variable truly cause changes in another variable.

The specific process or pathway by which one concept affects another. (Also referred to as a mediating concept, mediating variable, or linking concept.)

A theory of how exactly changes in one concept lead to changes in another concept. (Also referred as an explanatory story or just a “story.”)

In the United States, a document issued by the Department of Health and Human Services to protect the privacy of a research study’s participants. Typically, researchers can be compelled by court orders to release or discuss the data they collect, but certificates of confidentiality (which researchers must apply for) prevent them from having to disclose certain information to anyone not connected to the research.

An experimental design with a number of features designed to ensure the experiment’s internal validity. (Also called a true experimental design.) Study participants are randomly assigned to an experimental group or a control group, and pretests and posttests (measurements of the dependent variable) are conducted before and after the introduction of the stimulus or treatment (for the experimental group) or any placebo (for the control group).

The use of sociological knowledge to improve people’s quality of life in a healthcare setting.

Interview questions that provide respondents with a limited set of options for their responses. (Also referred to as close-ended questions or closed questions.) In in-depth interviews, closed-ended questions are often yes/no questions or can be answered with a word or two. In surveys, closed-ended questions require respondents to choose from two or more response categories.

A sampling technique in which a researcher begins by sampling groups (or clusters) of population elements and then selects elements from within those groups.

In cluster sampling, the groups within the sample that the researcher identifies to systematically draw elements from those groups rather than from the sample as a whole.

In qualitative research, a shorthand representation of some more complex set of issues or ideas. It typically takes the form of a label (a word or phrase) that tells us the theme or argument evident within a portion of text. In survey research, codes refer to the numerical values assigned to each survey question’s response options to facilitate data analysis.

To move between different linguistic or cultural styles.

For quantitative research, a document that describes the content and structure of a dataset. It typically contains information about the variable names for each survey question and the numerical values assigned to each response option. For qualitative research, codebooks describe the criteria that the researchers used when deciding how to categorize and label their data.

In qualitative analysis, the process of identifying relevant themes through reading and review of the relevant data. In survey research, coding refers more narrowly to the process of assigning numerical values to each survey question’s response options so that the respondents’ responses can be recorded in a quantitative dataset.

Memos that researchers write during the coding process that present their preliminary ideas and hunches about the data being reviewed, often with a focus on a particular set of related codes. (Also called analytic memos.)

The specific portions of the text that are being labeled with a code in an analysis of interview transcripts or field notes. A coding unit can range from a single phrase to multiple paragraphs. Note that coding units may also take the form of images and other nontextual materials that are being coded.

When the list of attributes associated with a variable covers all possibilities. The response categories for a particular survey question should be collectively exhaustive (also referred to as just “exhaustive”).

A type of research that involves people in the communities being studied as active participants in the research process, rather than passive “subjects” or sources of information.

A visualization of how concepts relate to one another, which typically includes boxes that represent concepts and arrows that represent relationships (with the direction of the arrows indicating the presumed direction of causality).

Visualizing concepts and the relationships between them, generally by using boxes and arrows (with the direction of the arrows indicating the presumed direction of causality).

Mental images of a particular phenomenon that summarize its key aspects.

The stage of the research process at which researchers explicitly and clearly define the concepts they are using in their study.

Individuals who pretend to be research participants but are actually part of the research team running an experiment. Confederates interact with participants and otherwise behave in ways to establish the desired conditions for the experimental setting.

When researchers collect identifying information about research participants, but only they can link specific participants with that information.

A criterion used to assess the rigor of qualitative research that focuses on the degree to which the results reported are actually grounded in the data obtained from study participants. Confirmability is a dimension of the larger criterion of trustworthiness.

A natural tendency to interpret data in ways that support, or “confirm,” one’s existing views, which can lead to flawed research findings that reflect the researcher’s personal biases.

Situations in which the financial or other personal benefits that researchers have received, or could receive, might compromise or bias their research by influencing their professional judgment and objectivity.

A major theoretical approach that is interested in questions of power. Scholars in this tradition examine who wins and who loses based on the way that society is organized.

A variable other than the presumed independent variable that may be influencing the dependent variable. (Also known as a confounding variable or lurking variable.)

A document given to research participants that provides clear and accurate information about the study, including any potential benefits and risks of the research and the procedures for storing personal data and withdrawing from the study. Participants are asked to sign the consent form or otherwise indicate they have read it and fully understand its contents.

A materials-based research method that focuses on texts and their meanings. In content analysis, the “texts” being analyzed can be any recorded communications—from news articles or email messages, to speeches and dance performances, to television shows, advertisements, and movies.

A method used to assess the validity of a measure where a researcher evaluates whether the measure covers all the possible meanings, domains, and dimensions of a concept.

A sample of research participants who do not receive the experimental stimulus but are included in a study to measure their scores on the dependent variable. Their outcomes can be compared to those of the experimental group to gauge the impact of the stimulus or treatment.

Variables of secondary importance that still need to be accounted for in a quantitative data analysis to avoid being fooled by spurious relationships between the independent and dependent variables.

A sampling technique in which a researcher draws a sample from part of the population that is convenient to obtain—for instance, because potential interviewees are located near the researcher or otherwise are readily available.

A method used to assess the validity of a measure by comparing scores on that measure to those derived from an existing measure of the same or a similar concept. A strong correlation between the two measures is evidence that they are both measuring the same thing, and that the new measure is therefore valid in this way. (Compare to discriminant validity.)

When variables are related to one another, in the sense that changes in one variable are associated with changes in another variable. (Correlation is also referred to as association.) Note that observing that two variables are correlated is not by itself evidence that changes in one variable cause changes in the other (i.e., correlation does not necessarily mean causation).

A statistical measurement of the extent to which two ordinal-level or scale-level variables are linearly related to one another.

When a researcher does not disclose their identity as a researcher to the individuals or groups being studied.

A criterion used to assess the rigor of qualitative research that focuses on the degree to which the results are accurate and viewed as important and believable. Credibility is similar to validity in that it assesses how closely the study reflects the reality of the people being studied. It is a dimension of the larger criterion of trustworthiness.

A paradigm of scientific knowledge focused on power, inequality, and social change. Critical theory attempts to analyze the oppositions, conflicts, and contradictions in contemporary society, critique the alienating and oppressive conditions of the status quo, and eliminate the causes of that alienation and oppression.

A document listing a scholar’s credentials, research interests, teaching experience, and important publications and presentations. (Abbreviated as CV. The plural is also written as curriculum vitae.)

Facts, details, statistics, and other information used to understand some phenomenon of interest. Ideally, data is collected through a scientific process, but any information could be considered data for research purposes.

Using scientific methods to interpret available information, identify trends and patterns, and map complex relationships.

A specific statistic or other piece of information employed in research.

An interdisciplinary field that uses computer coding and social scientific analysis methods to address the data-related problems facing corporations, governments, and other organizations.

All the data relating to a specific survey or study that is grouped together in a single file or set of files (referred to more colloquially as a database).

A procedure for ensuring informed consent when research participants were intentionally deceived about the nature of a study or not provided with full information. In the debriefing held after the conclusion of the study, researchers explain its true purpose and why any deception was necessary.

An approach to empirical investigation in which researchers start with a social theory that they find noteworthy and then test its implications with data. (Also referred to with the terms deduction or deductive analysis.)

A sociological field that focuses on the statistical study of populations.

A criterion for assessing the rigor of qualitative research that focuses on whether the researcher followed proper procedures in conducting the project. Dependability is a dimension of the larger criterion of trustworthiness.

A variable thought to be influenced or changed by another variable (the independent variable). Dependent variables are also referred to as response variables, outcome variables, and outcome measures.

Field notes that focus on straightforwardly describing a researcher’s observations rather than analyzing them.

A type of research directed at making careful observations and generating detailed documentation about a phenomenon of interest.

Calculating statistics (e.g., counts, percentages, means) to summarize the main features of a sample or subsample. (Compare to inferential statistics.)

Particular cases (e.g., persons, organizations, observations) that contradict an observed pattern or existing theory, such as by having exceptionally high or low values on a noteworthy variable. (Also known as outliers.)

A qualitative method of research that applies ethnographic observation techniques to online social spaces (e.g., social media platforms, video streams). Digital ethnographers examine people’s virtual activities and interactions—sometimes in real time, and sometimes complemented by offline observations.

A unique string of numbers and letters assigned to a scholarly paper, government report, or other document (abbreviated as DOI or doi). The nonprofit DOI Foundation introduced this international standard in 2000, and most academic journal articles are now assigned DOIs when they are published. Going to https://doi.org/[DOI] (with the article’s DOI replacing [DOI] in the address bar) will take you to the official webpage for that source.

Aspects of a concept that can vary.

A description of the presumed relationship between two variables that specifies whether changes in the first variable cause changes in the second, or vice versa.

Whether the overall relationship between two numerical variables is positive (as one goes up, the other goes up) or negative (as one goes up, the other goes down).

The range of possible disclosure that an ethnographer might provide about their role as a researcher in the field, which can be understood as a spectrum rather than discrete categories of “disclosure” and “nondisclosure.” (See also covert research.)

A method of assessing the validity of a measure by comparing scores on that measure with those derived from an existing measure that, logically speaking, should be entirely unrelated. The lack of any correlation between the two measures is evidence that they are measuring different concepts. (Compare to convergent validity.)

Information that is deliberately misleading. (Compare to misinformation.)

An approach to stratified sampling in which the sizes of the subgroup samples do not match their relative sizes within the population (or sampling frame).

An original research project that a PhD student typically must complete to receive their doctoral degree. PhD students who have successfully completed their coursework and any qualifying exams and are now working on their dissertation are called PhD candidates (and are colloquially described as ABD—“all but dissertation”).

A procedure of keeping identities secret on both sides. In peer review, the reviewers are “blind” to the identities of the authors, and vice versa. In experiments, neither the researchers nor the study participants know who received the treatment until after the data collection is completed.

Pairs of people who are connected through social interaction.

A logical error of making claims about the nature of individuals based on data from the groups they belong to.

A book whose chapters are scholarly papers written by various authors. One or more scholars will serve as editors of the volume, which typically focuses on a specific research-related theme or question.

Newly emerging topics or issues that researchers have not yet studied intensively.

Data collected through a scientific process.

Patterns or regularities identified in the data that a researcher analyzes.

Papers that report the results of a quantitative or qualitative data analysis conducted by the author, oftentimes with original data collection as well.

Questions that have to do with our factual reality and that can be answered through research.

Philosophical inquiry relating to the nature and scope of knowledge.

Inaccuracy in the measurement of key variables for a given population.

Researchers who immerse themselves in a particular setting, organization, or culture and conduct ethnographic observations (first-hand observations and descriptions of a social context), usually over an extended period of time. (Also known as field researchers.)

A qualitative method of studying a phenomenon within its social context by doing first-hand observations and providing detailed descriptions.

A qualitative method of studying a phenomenon within its social context by doing first-hand observations and providing detailed descriptions. The word “ethnography” can also refer to studies that utilize ethnographic observation, including the books that ethnographers write based on such research.

A type of research that aims to assess whether social programs are effective in achieving their objectives.

Criteria that a researcher uses to decide whether to exclude a person (or other unit of analysis) from a sample.

Information that researchers collect under specific conditions that they have some control over, or whose existence they can exploit.

A sample of research participants who do receive the experimental stimulus or treatment. (Also called the treatment group.) Their scores on the dependent variable can be compared to those of the control group to gauge the impact of the stimulus or treatment.

A research method that ideally entails having control and experimental groups that are exactly the same except for the presence of a stimulus or treatment, allowing researchers to rigorously assess whether a change in the corresponding independent variable brings about a change in the dependent variable or variables of interest.

Codes that go beyond merely categorizing data and attempt to make theoretical arguments. (Also called analytic codes.) During the coding process, codes normally shift from being more descriptive to being more explanatory.

A type of research that seeks explanations of observed behaviors, problems, or other phenomena. Explanatory research seeks answers to “why” and “how” questions.

A type of research that examines new areas of inquiry, with the goals of (1) scoping out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon, problem, or behavior; (2) generating initial ideas or hunches about that phenomenon; or (3) testing the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study regarding that phenomenon.

An alternative strategy for qualitative research that does not follow the purely inductive approach of grounded theory. When using the extended case method (also known as the extended case study approach), researchers start with an existing theory and look for one or more cases that deviate from that theory, which they can use to explain why the theory falls short. Observations of the chosen case or cases are used to find and correct problems in the theory.

A study’s ability to generalize any results obtained from its sample to its target population (or, more generally, to other people, organizations, contexts, or times).

Organizations or other sites of study that display characteristics or behaviors that are not the norm. These deviant cases (or outliers) stray from commonly seen patterns in instructive ways—for instance, by allowing researchers to see aspects of a phenomenon of interest that are rarer in conventional cases, or explain why existing theories do not adequately account for such an outlier (and therefore need to be refined).

A method of assessing the validity of a measure in which the researcher evaluates whether it is plausible and logical that a given variable (specifically, the operational definition of a concept) actually measures what it intends to measure.

A criterion used to assess the rigor of qualitative research that focuses on the extent to which researchers have considered all relevant viewpoints on a particular topic. Fairness is a dimension of the larger criterion of authenticity.

The possibility that empirical observations can show a hypothesis generated from a theory to be untrue. The British philosopher Karl Popper argued that falsifiability is a foundation of the scientific method: for theories to be valid, they must be falsifiable.

Situations in which a change in concept A leads to a change in concept B—which, in turn, loops back to change concept A.

Experiments conducted in a real-world setting rather than in a laboratory.

Descriptive notes that researchers write—in a notepad or through more discrete means—while they are observing in the field or during an interview. Their field jottings supply the raw material that they later use to draft more formal field notes.

A memo that researchers write to describe and summarize their observations (and sometimes also the content of their interviews) during a particular period of time. Field notes (also written as fieldnotes) often contain the researchers’ personal reactions and preliminary analysis as well. To ensure adequate recall, researchers try to write field notes right after their last session of data collection, drawing on the field jottings they wrote while observing.

A setting, organization, or other social context that a researcher chooses to study in order to understand a phenomenon. (Also referred to as just a site.)

Interviews conducted with a group of respondents at the same time. During a focus group session, one or more moderators will typically ask the group questions about a particular political issue, product, or other topic.

A stage of the coding process that typically follows open coding. During focused coding, researchers finalize their code lists—collapsing or narrowing their codes and setting firm definitions for each one—and then recode their qualitative data to ensure consistency.

Explanations for phenomena that the groups being studied believe in. Folk theories can be useful as sources of insight and insider knowledge, but they also may reflect the group’s prejudices or blind spots.

Private organizations that manage large amounts of assets on behalf of a particular public purpose.

Academic journals that publish any noteworthy paper within a broad field.

The extent to which a study’s results can reasonably tell us something about the larger population from which its sample was drawn.

When a study’s results can reasonably tell us something about the larger population from which its sample was drawn.

Research and information produced by nonacademics, including researchers working for government agencies, advocacy organizations, polling outfits, and think tanks.

A purist approach to inductive investigation in which researchers start from a clean slate, letting data guide them to new theories rather than beginning with a set of existing theories to build on or test. By keeping an open mind while immersing themselves in real-world settings, researchers following the grounded theory approach should be able to generate novel theories that are not constrained by any preconceptions or well-established views.

The possibility that an observed change in the dependent variable is caused by extraneous or past events rather than by the experimental treatment. The history threat (also called the history effect) is one kind of threat to the internal validity of an experiment.

A living individual about whom a social scientist (whether a professional or student) either (1) obtains information through intervention or interaction with the individual, and uses, studies, or analyzes the information; or (2) obtains, uses, studies, analyzes, or generates identifiable private information.

Scientific conjectures—educated guesses—about how the various concepts being studied are related, which researchers develop based on logic or the findings of past research.

The types present within a typology, which are not meant to describe any one particular case but rather to highlight commonly shared characteristics across cases. The German sociologist Max Weber popularized the use of ideal types.

When a researcher explains a single situation or event in idiosyncratic detail by listing all its potential causes.

A rough numerical measure of a journal’s influence within the scientific community, which is calculated based on how many citations its articles received, on average, a year or two after publication.

A type of research that attempts to make better use of scientific knowledge in real-world settings, paying close attention to the roles that various groups (e.g., governments, nonprofit organizations, healthcare providers, citizens) play in the successful implementation of that knowledge.

Codes that emerge from the terms or phrases that research participants themselves use.

A qualitative method of research that involves conducting semi-structured or unstructured interviews, with a focus on asking individuals open-ended questions to elicit detailed information. (Also called qualitative interviewing.)

Semi-structured (and, more rarely) unstructured interviews that focus on generating rich qualitative detail about a topic. (Also called qualitative interviews.) During in-depth interviews, researchers prioritize open-ended questions (which give respondents more flexibility to discuss what they think is important) and probes (predetermined or improvised follow-up questions).

Criteria that a researcher uses to decide whether to include a person (or other unit of analysis) within a sample.

Researchers without any affiliations to a university, think tank, or other institution.

A variable that a researcher believes explains changes in another variable. Specifically, changes in the independent variable are thought to cause changes in the other variable (the dependent variable). Independent variables are also known as explanatory variables. In experiments, the independent variable that the researcher manipulates is called the experimental stimulus or treatment.

A type of measure that contains multiple indicators designed to assess a more general concept. Although the terms “index” and “scale” are sometimes used interchangeably, indexes typically have items that are different conceptually from each other, rather than collectively measuring intensity across a single dimension.

Another term for variables—operational definitions of concepts—that is frequently used in quantitative research, especially for variables that are routinely collected by government agencies and other organizations.

An approach to empirical investigation in which researchers start with a set of observations and use the empirical evidence they gather to create a more general set of propositions about how the world operates. (Also referred to as induction or inductive analysis.)

The process of testing hypotheses based on empirical evidence.

Conclusions based on empirical evidence.

When people make observations without any systematic procedure for conducting their observations or assessing the accuracy of what they observed.

In research ethics, the principle that research participants should be included in a study only after they have been provided easily understandable and accurate information about it, and only after they have willingly given their consent to participate.

Board of experts established at universities or other research organization to review research proposals involving human subjects and ensure that researchers follow ethical principles. Review by institutional review boards (IRBs) is a requirement for any federally funded research in the United States; in the United Kingdom, similar regulatory bodies are known as ethics committees.

The possibility that the difference between an experiment’s pretest and posttest scores could be due to changes in the administered test. For example, the pretest might have a lower degree of difficulty than the posttest, thus accounting for increased scores. The instrumentation threat (also called the instrumentation effect) is one kind of threat to the internal validity of an experiment.

A method of assessing the reliability of a measure by examining the degree to which two or more observers (raters) agree on the measurement of one or more cases (i.e., on the values assigned to those cases).

Organizations that involve two or more nations working to further a common interest or goal.

The degree to which participants’ answers to items within a multiple-item measure are consistent. Specifically, the answers for each item in an index or scale should be correlated with each other, as they all are supposed to measure aspects of the same overall concept.

A study’s ability to determine if changes in the independent variable truly cause changes in the dependent variable.

An approach to research that attempts to make sense of what people say or do, with a focus on the social significance of those words and actions. (Sometimes referred to as the interpretivist approach.)

A level of measurement in which the variable’s attributes are separated by equal and meaningful distances. Interval-level variables are included in the broader category of scale-level variables. Unlike ratio-level variables (also in that category), interval-level variables do not have a true zero point, where a value of zero refers to the complete absence of the phenomenon being measured.

A list of topics or questions that the interviewer can refer to during the course of an interview.

A method of data collection that involves two or more people exchanging information through a series of questions and answers.

A sampling strategy in which researchers move back and forth between the process of sampling and preliminary analysis of their data. (Also known as recursive sampling.)

Research participants who are well-connected within the setting that the researcher is studying. Such an insider can provide a framework for your observations, help “translate” what you observe, give you important insight into a group’s culture, and assist you in recruiting additional participants to observe or interview.

When searching the scholarly literature on a topic, keywords refer to relevant terms used in a search query. When writing a journal article, authors choose a number of terms to be explicitly listed as the article’s “keywords,” which describe the main concepts and topics the paper covers.

An experiment done in an office or other setting where researchers can manipulate conditions to emulate situations in the real world.

Consistently observed patterns relating to specific phenomena.

When the wording of a question encourages a person to answer in a potentially biased way.

A classification system that categorizes variables by how their attributes are related to one another. In statistical analysis, researchers focus on three key levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, and scale. Different analysis techniques are appropriate for each level of measurement.

The different levels of aggregation at which social scientists can study phenomena, which can range from the macro (societies) to the micro (individuals).

A portion of an in-depth interview focused on formative events in the respondent’s life that may have influenced their orientation toward a particular issue or their experience of a particular phenomenon today.

Ordinal-level scales used to measure the intensity of people’s agreement with a particular statement. A common format for a Likert scale (pronounced <em>LICK-ert</em>) has response categories ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree,” corresponding to numerical values of 1 to 5 (including a neutral value) or 1 to 4 (without a neutral value).

A concept that describes a pathway by which concept A (or the independent variable) affects concept B (or the dependent variable). (Also referred to as a causal mechanism, mediating concept, or mediator.)

The existing scientific studies that relate to a particular phenomenon.

A summary, analysis, and synthesis of the most significant published research on a scholarly topic.

A grid, table, or outline that lists all the sources to be included in a literature review, breaking them down by their research questions, methods, samples, key findings, and other characteristics. (Also called a summary table.)

The highest level of analysis, which in the social sciences often involves the study of communities, societies, or countries.

Conducting an analysis of qualitative data without the use of specialized qualitative data analysis (QDA) programs.

Research to help guide companies make decisions about increasing their sales or improving their performance.

The possibility that a change in the dependent variable observed within an experiment could be caused by natural changes in research participants rather than by the experimental treatment. The maturation threat (also called the maturation effect) is one kind of threat to the internal validity of an experiment.

The difference between the measured values of a variable and the true but unobserved values of that variable. The two kinds of measurement error are random error and systematic error.

Another term for variables (operational definitions of concepts).

Variables that describe a pathway by which an independent variable affects a dependent variable. (Also referred to as causal mechanisms, linking concepts, or mediators.)

When a concept stands between and links two other concepts in a causal relationship. A mediating concept (or linking concept) is the pathway by which one concept affects another.

A concept that describes a pathway by which concept A (or the independent variable) affects concept B (or the dependent variable). (Also referred to as a causal mechanism, linking concept, or mediating concept.)

The middle level of analysis, which in the social sciences typically involves the study of organizations or other kinds of groups.

A common type of systematic review that uses statistical procedures to synthesize the results of many quantitative studies. (Also called a meta-synthesis.)

The lowest level of analysis, which in the social sciences typically involves the study of individuals.

Information that is inaccurate or misleading. (Compare to disinformation.)

A research design that uses qualitative and quantitative techniques jointly within a single study. (Also referred to as mixed methods or a mixed-methods approach.)

Variables that alter the relationship between dependent and independent variables.

When a concept (or variable) influences the relationship between two other concepts (or variables). (Also referred to as interaction or an interaction effect.) Specifically, the presence of this moderating concept (also called a conditioning concept) weakens or strengthens (or otherwise affects) the relationship between two concepts.

The researcher tasked with managing the conversation in a focus group. (Also called a facilitator.) The moderator poses questions and interjects as needed, with the goal of getting group members to share their thoughts and interact with one another during the session.

Scholarly books that focus on a particular topic.

A form of plagiarism in which the author cites the source that they drew ideas or information from, but nevertheless uses a substantial amount of the source’s exact wording without explicitly quoting the copied passages.

Overarching concepts formed from multiple underlying concepts.

When the different attributes defined for a variable (or response options provided for a survey question) do not overlap with one another. All variables used in quantitative data analysis must have mutually exclusive attributes.

Scientific fields that focus on naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light, objects, matter, earth, stars, or the human body. (Also known as the hard sciences.)

A systematic effort to determine what assistance may be needed by the individual clients or communities that a program serves.

A type of relationship between two numerical variables in which the value of one variable goes down as the value of the other variable goes up, and vice versa. (Also called an inverse relationship.)

Newly coined words or expressions, which a researcher can devise to capture a new or enhanced way of understanding a particular phenomenon.

Recruiting potential interviewees by asking people in a relevant social network to provide referrals. This approach can entail snowball sampling (asking your interviewees to suggest other potential interviewees) and organizational referrals (getting people who work at a particular organization to refer you to members of the population that their organization serves).

In research ethics, the principle that participants should not suffer physical or psychological harm.

The lowest level of measurement, where a variable’s attributes are different from one another, but there is no mathematical order to the attributes. City of residence and gender identity are examples of nominal-level variables.

When a researcher attempts to explain a class of situations or events rather than a specific situation or event.

Nonprofit organizations that operate outside of government control and typically conduct operations on behalf of social or political causes across multiple countries. (Abbreviated as NGOs.)

A type of sampling in which the researchers do not know the likelihood that a person (or other unit of analysis) in the population will be selected for membership in the sample. Nonprobability sampling is common in qualitative research.

Organizations like charities, churches, labor unions, and political organizations that are not government-owned and operate within the private sector, yet—unlike for-profit firms—commit any profits they make to the organization’s social purpose.

Individuals who decline to answer questions for a survey or in-depth interview or who cannot be reached by researchers.

Bias introduced into a study when respondents and nonrespondents differ in important ways, which means that the relevant characteristics observed in the sample differ from those in the target population.

When no alternative explanation exists for the observed result (the dependent variable) other than the action of the independent variable. Nonspuriousness is a necessary condition for establishing a causal relationship between two variables.

A respondent’s facial expressions, gestures, and other types of body language, which can give hints about their mood or their underlying feelings and thoughts about a topic they are discussing.

Questions that concern what norms or standards society should have, and whose answers therefore depend on people’s moral opinions. Research can inform, but not answer, normative questions.

Ten principles for ethical research put forward by the Nuremberg war crimes tribunal in 1947 to guide medical professionals and scientists who conduct research on human subjects.

Information that scientists gather in the real world from surveys, in-depth interviews, ethnographic observation, and other methods that do not use an experimental design.

First-hand experiences of some phenomenon.

Philosophical inquiry into the nature of reality.

Commentary pieces published by news outlets. (Also known as guest essays.) “Op-ed” stands for “opposite the editorial page,” referring to where such guest essays were traditionally placed in a newspaper.

An inductive process of reading through qualitative data, categorizing the material by relevant themes, and developing theoretical arguments based on the observed patterns or relationships.

Interview questions that give respondents more leeway to answer as they wish. In in-depth interviews, open-ended questions encourage interviewees to answer at length. In surveys, open-ended questions allow respondents to respond using their own words rather than choosing from response categories.

A definition or procedure for how researchers actually measure an abstract concept when they are collecting data.

The stage of the research process at which the researcher specifies explicitly and clearly how a concept will be measured.

When a researcher specifies how a concept will be measured.

A level of measurement in which a variable’s attributes can be numerically ranked from low to high values (or vice versa) using some kind of meaningful comparison. Unlike for scale-level variables, the distances between values of an ordinal-level variable do not correspond to actual differences in intensity or magnitude, and the values themselves only refer to the relative ranking of the variable’s attributes.

An analysis conducted to determine whether a program has achieved its intended outcomes. Typically, an outcomes assessment measures the various resources the program took advantage of (inputs) and its tangible results (outputs).

Particular cases (e.g., persons, organizations, observations) that contradict an observed pattern or existing theory, such as by having exceptionally high or low values on a noteworthy variable. (Also known as deviant cases.)

Assuming that broad patterns exist based on very limited observations.

When a subgroup represents a greater share of a sample than the same subgroup represents in the larger population.

A write-up of a study that a researcher has conducted.

Ways of viewing the world and understanding the human experience. Paradigms frame what we know, what we can know, and how we can know it.

Means, medians, standard deviations, and other numerical values that summarize the characteristics of a population. When researchers cannot observe the actual population parameters, they generate statistics from a sample of that population to estimate those parameters.

How economical a theory is, as measured by how much of a particular phenomenon it can explain, with how few variables.

A type of ethnographic observation where researchers get involved in the activities or organizations they are studying, taking on more or less formal roles as event participants or members of groups.

The range of possible involvement that a researcher might have in the activities or organizations they are observing in the field, which can be understood as a spectrum rather than discrete categories of “participation” and “nonparticipation.”

A type of research that seeks to improve the conditions of a particular community. (Also referred to as just “action research.”) Rather than merely measuring and explaining a social problem facing the community, action research seeks to identify and implement specific solutions to that problem.

A formal process in which other researchers review a scholarly work to ensure that it meets the standards and expectations of their field.

When a sampling frame exhibits a pattern that occurs at regular intervals, such as weekends occurring in a sampling frame of dates. Under such conditions, systematic sampling might inadvertently introduce bias into a sample.

Things, events, and processes that can be observed and that raise interesting questions for scientists about how the world works.

Research that explores initial ideas or tests out data collection or analysis procedures as part of a more comprehensive project.

Any preliminary vetting of a survey questionnaire, interview guide, or other research instrument.

The presentation of someone else’s work as your own. To avoid plagiarism, scholars must cite all sources that they took ideas or information from (both within the text and in the reference list at the end of their paper), put quotation marks around any text that was used word-for-word, and avoid paraphrases that are too close in wording to the text of the original source (even when it is cited).

Reports written by experts that summarize a particular issue and the recommended policy approaches for dealing with it.

Action by policymakers to launch or expand particular programs or enact or alter particular laws.

Top government, corporate, or other officials who can create laws, regulations, rules, and other sorts of policies that affect people’s behavior.

The larger group that a sample of people (or other units of analysis) are drawn from, and that the sample is intended to represent.

The larger group (of people, organizations, objects, etc.) that a researcher is interested in learning about and that their research question applies to. (Also referred to as a target population.)

How a researcher’s personal identities and perspectives shape how they interpret reality, including what they observe over the course of their research and what conclusions they draw.

A type of relationship between two numerical variables in which the value of one variable goes up as the value of the other variable goes up, and vice versa.

A paradigm of scientific knowledge that prioritizes principles of objectivity, knowability, and deductive logic.

A paradigm of scientific knowledge that directly challenges the idea of objective knowledge as well as the various ways of knowing that science has traditionally used.

A paradigm of scientific knowledge that, like positivism, seeks to reject false beliefs through empirical observation, but also holds that it is impossible to verify the truth in any exhaustive fashion.

Performing statistical weighting to adjust the sample after it has been collected and make its statistics better reflect the actual parameters of the target population.

A measurement of the dependent variable taken after the stimulus or treatment has been introduced in an experiment.

Experimental designs that do not have the conventional features intended to ensure internal validity (the study’s ability to evaluate whether a causal relationship exists between two variables). These features would include having study participants randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, providing the stimulus or treatment only to the experimental group, and conducting pretests and posttests (measurements of the dependent variable).

A method of assessing the reliability of a measure by determining if it predicts future phenomena that it should be able to predict. For example, a standardized test that successfully predicts a student’s grades in college would arguably have predictive validity as a measure of academic ability.

A measurement of the dependent variable taken at the outset of an experiment before the stimulus or treatment has been introduced.

Original works describing first-hand observations, often written by individuals who were present at a noteworthy event or had relevant experiences.

Researchers who have a central role in conducting a study. (Abbreviated as PIs.)

The portion of an economy (including the labor market) that is not controlled by the government—for instance, the activities of for-profit firms and nonprofit organizations.

In cluster sampling, a procedure to adjust the sample selection process so that each element across the differently sized clusters has an equal chance of being selected. (Abbreviated as PPS.)

A type of sampling in which the researchers know the likelihood that a person (or other unit of analysis) in the population will be selected for membership in the sample. (Also called random sampling.) Probability sampling is widely used in quantitative studies.

Follow-up questions that a researcher asks during an in-depth interview, which may be part of the interview guide or improvised.

Membership organizations that represent individuals who share employment or interests in a specific industry or field, such as an academic discipline like sociology.

Sets of formal ethical rules and principles developed and codified by professional organizations, such as the American Sociological Association.

A set of interventions that individuals or groups receive, often as part of an organization or government's strategy to deal with a social problem.

An approach to stratified sampling where the sizes of the subgroup samples match their relative sizes in the population (or sampling frame).

In research ethics, the principle that researchers should safeguard the privacy of research participants through approaches such as ensuring confidentiality or anonymity.

An interdisciplinary science focused on studying the determinants of health—including social determinants—and using that knowledge to craft policies and interventions that prevent disease and promote health within communities and societies.

The portion of an economy (including the labor market) that is controlled by the government.

The application of sociological theories and research to matters of public interest.

A nonprobability sampling approach where the selection of cases is guided by the researcher’s theory about what concepts and processes matter. (Also called theoretical sampling.)

Types of research that generate or analyze data involving words, pictures, and other symbols beyond numbers. Two of the most common qualitative methods in sociology include ethnographic observation and in-depth interviewing.

Types of research that generate or analyze data that can be represented by and condensed into numbers. Survey research is probably the most common quantitative method in sociology, but methods such as content analysis can also be conducted in a way that yields quantitative data.

Studies that approximate a true experimental design to improve their internal validity beyond what they could do with merely an analysis of observational data. However, quasi-experimental designs lack random assignment to experimental and control groups, which means they are vulnerable to related threats to internal validity.

Search terms used in a database to find sources.

A nonprobability sampling technique where a researcher starts by identifying categories that are important to the study. The researcher then selects a sufficient number of cases that fall into these key categories, sometimes in proportion to the relative size of the corresponding subgroups within the population.

Large research universities that engage in “very high research activity,” according to the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, which means that they have substantial doctoral programs and numerous faculty and students focused primarily on research.

A type of measurement error—present in every measurement—where unpredictable differences occur between the measured values of a variable and the true but unobserved values. (Compare to systematic error.)

A sampling process that ensures that cases from the population are picked at random.

A sampling process that ensures that cases from the population are picked at random.

The sense of connection a researcher establishes with a research participant, which may encourage the participant to speak in greater detail about their thoughts, feelings, and experiences or to act more naturally while being observed.

The highest level of measurement, where the variable’s attributes are separated by equal and meaningful distances (like for interval-level variables) and the variable has a true zero point (unlike for interval-level variables). For example, the number of siblings a person has would be a ratio-level variable, given that a value of zero refers to the complete absence of the phenomenon being measured (i.e., not having any siblings). Ratio-level and interval-level variables are both included in the broader category of scale-level variables.

The degree to which the presence of a researcher or their interactions with participants alter the behaviors of those being observed, leading to outcomes different from what would have happened without the researcher present.

An academic journal whose papers are vetted through peer review. (Also known as a peer-reviewed journal.)

The social group to which people compare themselves when judging their own social status, such as when they assess their income relative to others.

A self-reflective process that researchers engage in to understand how their own identity, beliefs, dispositions, actions, and practices may have influenced their research, especially the results they found.

The statistical tendency of a group’s overall performance on a measure during a posttest to move toward the mean of that measure rather than in the hypothesized direction. For example, if participants score very low on a pretest, they will have a tendency to score higher on the posttest (closer to the mean). Regression to the mean (also called regression, though note that this usage is distinct from “regression” in the sense of regression analysis) is one kind of threat to the internal validity of an experiment.

The assumption that an abstract concept exists in some concrete, tangible way.

The consistency of a measure. A measure is said to be reliable if it gives the same result upon repeated applications to the same phenomenon.

A sample whose characteristics are similar to the population from which it was drawn, which means that findings from that sample can be reasonably generalized to the population.

The planning process for a scientific study, which typically involves a thorough review of the relevant literature, the formulation of a focused research question, and a detailed proposal for the methodological approach that will be used to answer that question.

Particular tools that are used in research to measure concepts, such as a survey questionnaire or interview guide.

Organized and logical ways of learning about and knowing the world around us.

The people or communities being studied by a researcher. (Also called study participants or just “participants.”)

A gap in the literature on a topic that scholars who work in that area aim to address with their research.

The end product of the process of research design for a proposed scientific study, which usually takes the form of a paper that includes a thorough review of the relevant literature, the formulation of a focused research question, and a detailed plan for the methodological approach that will be used to answer that question.

The question a researcher hopes to answer by collecting and analyzing data for an empirical study.

Individuals who answer questions for a survey or in-depth interview.

The listed options that a respondent can choose when answering a particular question (item) on a survey instrument. (Also called response options.) When constructing a survey questionnaire, each question’s response categories should exhaust all the possible attributes for the associated variable.

A percentage determined by dividing the number of completed survey questionnaires by the number originally distributed, or the number of individuals successfully interviewed by the number contacted for an interview.

A situation in which researchers believe that a change in concept A (or the independent variable) causes a change in concept B (or the dependent variable), but the opposite is actually the case.

Long-form literature reviews that scholars write to synthesize and comment on the existing research on a particular topic of scientific interest. Some journals specialize in publishing review articles, such as the Annual Review of Sociology.

The subset of the larger population that the researcher has collected data from, and that represent the target population within the study.

A sampling strategy where the researcher seeks to find a sufficient number of cases that reflect the range of variation across one or more key variables.

All the people (or other units of analysis) whom researchers seek to recruit from the population of interest.

The process of selecting cases or observations that will be analyzed for research purposes.

A type of bias that occurs when the elements selected for inclusion in a study do not represent the larger population from which they were drawn.

The difference between the statistics obtained from a sample and the actual parameters of a population. Probability sampling allows for the calculation of the sampling error (also called random sampling error) that is expected given the size of the sample being used.

A list of members of a population that is available to researchers, which they use to select cases for their sample. Ideally, the sampling frame includes every single member of that population.

Each case in the researcher's sample—for example, each individual interviewed in an interview-based study.

An approach to writing up qualitative data that starts with a theoretical point (the top bun), inserts qualitative data (the meat), and then reiterates, expands upon, or notes exceptions to that theoretical point (the bottom bun).

Reaching a point at which collecting more data does not generate further insights into the phenomenon of interest.

A type of measure that contains multiple indicators designed to assess a more general concept. Although the terms “index” and “scale” are sometimes used interchangeably, scales are different in that they have some kind of intensity structure. For instance, as a respondent moves from lower to higher values on the Bogardus Social Distance Scale, their level of tolerance for members of a particular group intensifies.

A level of measurement where the variable’s attributes are ordered (like for ordinal-level variables) and the distance between those attributes is meaningful (unlike for ordinal-level variables). The scale level of measurement combines both the interval and ratio levels of measurement; for practical purposes, the same quantitative analysis techniques can be used for variables at either of these levels.

A discipline of learning that uses formal, systematic procedures to observe and measure phenomena.

A systematic and organized body of knowledge that is acquired using the scientific method.

A standardized set of techniques for acquiring and vetting knowledge, such as procedures for making observations or interpreting results.

The conditions under which a relevant theory derived from a study’s empirical research can and cannot reasonably be applied. (Also called boundary conditions.)

Data that other researchers have previously collected. Frequently, government agencies and other organizations allow access to survey and census datasets for independent analysis, and independent researchers may provide their own data for others to analyze. Qualitative secondary data also exists, but it is much rarer in part because of confidentiality restrictions placed on such data.

Analysis of data that has previously been collected by other researchers.

Publications that interpret, discuss, and summarize primary sources.

The criteria that a researcher uses for including or excluding potential research participants from their sample. (See also inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria.)

In systematic sampling, the distance between the elements of the sampling frame that researchers select for inclusion in their sample. The selection interval (k) is calculated by dividing the total number of population elements by the desired sample size.

The possibility that differences between the control and experimental groups that existed prior to the administration of the stimulus or treatment could account for differences between those groups at the posttest. The selection threat (also called the selection effect) is one kind of threat to the internal validity of an experiment.

A type of coding that involves identifying a central code or a core variable and systematically relating it to all other codes.

When people see only those patterns that they want to see, or when they assume that only the patterns they have directly experienced actually exist.

Bias that occurs when certain types of people are more likely to volunteer for (or be selected into) a sample. For example, people with strong opinions on an issue may be more likely to participate in a study.

Interviews in which researchers have a list of questions prepared in advance, but they may deviate from that list whenever they wish, rephrasing or reordering their predetermined questions or improvising new ones on the spot. Most in-depth interviews are semi-structured.

Signaling the organization and structure of a paper (or presentation) to its readers (or audience) by stating and reiterating its key points or arguments.

A sampling technique where the researcher gives all members of a population (more accurately, of a sampling frame) an equal probability of being selected.

A peer-review process in which the reviewers know who the author or authors are. For some peer reviews, such as those used for academic books, the process is single-blinded for practical reasons (such as the length of the reviewed work making it impractical to mask the identity of the author).

A sampling technique where researchers ask study participants they have already recruited to help identify additional participants.

A paradigm of scientific knowledge that sees “truth” as a varying, socially constructed, and ever-changing notion, and “reality” as created through people’s interactions and interpretations of those interactions.

Bias that occurs when participants in a research study answer or act in particular ways to present themselves to the researcher in a more positive light.

The social and environmental conditions and patterns of social interactions that influence the well-being of individuals.

A method for examining the ties linking individuals, groups, or other units and the dynamics and consequences of these structures. (Abbreviated as SNA.)

A type of public (i.e., government) policy that has to do with human well-being, such as healthcare policies, education policies, and labor regulations.

Scientific fields that focus on studying people or collections of people (such as groups, firms, societies, or economies) and their individual or collective behaviors.

The study of social life and social groups. Sociologists study how individuals shape (and are shaped by) social groups, which may be as small as individual families or couples, or as large as whole nations.

Academic journals dedicated to a subfield within the discipline, such as the sociology of education or organizational sociology.

A situation in which a relationship between two concepts seems to exist but, in reality, they are linked by a third concept, a confounder (also known as a confounding variable or lurking variable). Relationships where this condition holds are referred to as spurious relationships.

The various individuals or groups with a stake in the outcome of an endeavor. For a research project, the stakeholders would include the individuals or communities being studied, as well as scholars and policymakers who work on similar issues.

Means, medians, standard deviations, and other numerical values that describe a study’s sample or a subset of it. Statistics are usually meant to be estimates of the corresponding parameters in the target population.

The manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment, usually a specific intervention or factor whose impact on the dependent variable is what the researcher wishes to measure. (Also called the treatment.)

Taking theorized categories and relationships (as depicted in a concept map, for instance) and using them to tell a causal story about the observed phenomenon.

In stratified sampling, the mutually exclusive subgroups that a researcher divides the sample into to ensure that the sample draws from each subgroup.

A sampling technique where researchers divide the study population into two or more mutually exclusive subgroups (known as strata) and then draw a sample from each subgroup. Stratified sampling is used to ensure that the sample adequately represents the identified subgroups.

A major theoretical approach that focuses on the interrelations between various parts of society and how each part works with the others to make society function in the way that it does—much like parts of the body work together to help an organism to thrive.

Interviews in which the researchers ask the exact same questions in a precise ordering that they planned out ahead of time. Survey interviews usually take the form of structured interviews.

A survey form that a researcher asks a respondent to fill out before or after an in-depth interview. A supplemental questionnaire can cover basic demographic information that the researcher does not want to go over during the interview itself, or it can ask about sensitive or hard-to-remember details that a respondent may be better able to answer outside the interview.

A type of confounder that influences the dependent variable in such a manner that not accounting for it will lead a researcher to mischaracterize the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable as positive when it is actually negative, or vice versa.

Structured interviews in which the researcher poses the same set of questions, typically in a written format, to a sample of individuals.

A quantitative method of research (formally called survey research) that involves posing the same set of predetermined questions, typically in a written format, to a sample of individuals.

A major theoretical approach that studies how meaning is created and negotiated through social interactions.

The representations that people use to communicate their thoughts and feelings.

A type of measurement error that occurs when a measure consistently produces incorrect data. Systematic error typically occurs in one direction, in that the measured values are consistently too high or too low compared to their true values. (Compare to random error.)

A synthesis of past research usually focused on a narrow empirical question. More common in medical and policy fields, systematic reviews typically attempt to make precise conclusions about the effect of a specific intervention. They usually draw on the existing quantitative literature, though some cover qualitative work.

A sampling technique where the researcher selects elements from a sampling frame in specified intervals—for instance, every kth element on the list (where the selection interval k is calculated by dividing the total number of population elements by the desired sample size). To allow for an equal chance that every element could be selected, it is also important that the starting point be randomly chosen from within the first k elements on the list.

The larger group (of people, organizations, objects, etc.) that a researcher is interested in learning about, and that their research question applies to. (Also referred to as a population of interest.)

Publications that summarize secondary sources.

A method of assessing the reliability of a measure by collecting data from a sample and then retesting the same sample after a period of time. If the measure is reliable, the two measurements should be consistent.

The possibility that a change in the dependent variable observed within an experiment could be caused by the participants’ pretest responses influencing their posttest responses. The testing threat (also called the testing effect) is one kind of threat to the internal validity of an experiment.

A 1979 report produced by a U.S. federal agency, the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioral Research, which laid out three overarching ethical principles to guide all federally funded research on human subjects: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.

Theories that provide a simplified understanding of some process. Theoretical models (also just called “models”) reduce a complex phenomenon into its most important parts.

Papers that focus on elaborating a conceptual model or framework for understanding a problem rather than discussing data the author has collected or analyzed. (Also referred to as theory papers.)

Systematic explanations of a natural or social behavior, event, or other phenomenon.

A systematic explanation of a phenomenon.

A detailed description of the unfolding of a scene observed first-hand, with particular attention to the subjective and cultural meanings of any behaviors and other aspects of the larger social context.

Private or government-run organizations that conduct research to help governments, corporations, social movements, or other groups make decisions about the best policies to pursue or reforms to make.

Mainstream commercial presses (as opposed to academic presses) that publish books meant for general audiences.

Beliefs and customs that people justify based on the fact that they have been followed for a long time.

A complete written copy of a recorded interview or focus group session that contains each word that is spoken on the recording and notes who spoke which words.

The manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment, usually a specific intervention or factor whose impact on the dependent variable is what the researcher wishes to measure. (Also called the stimulus.)

To use one research method to evaluate or extend the findings derived from another method.

Using one research method to evaluate or extend the findings derived from another method.

A criterion for assessing the rigor of qualitative research that speaks to the overall truthfulness and usefulness of the results of a study. There are three dimensions of trustworthiness: credibility, dependability, and confirmability.

Tables with two rows and two columns that describe how variation across two dimensions leads to distinct outcomes. Researchers use two-by-two tables (and similar diagrams) to illuminate how the categories in a typology relate to one another.

Classification systems with distinct categories (types) that capture different varieties of a given phenomenon.

The class of phenomena (e.g., individuals, groups, objects, societies) that researchers want to learn about through their research.

The class of phenomena (e.g., individuals, groups, objects, societies) that researchers can actually observe for their study, which may also be their unit of analysis or may be another unit that provides indirect knowledge of their unit of analysis.

Interviews in which no list of questions exists. In unstructured interviews, the researcher improvises questions as they see fit regarding a particular topic they want to learn about.

A type of research that seeks to better understand the perspective of the end user, the person who will ultimately use the company’s product or service. (Also known as UX or design research.)

The accuracy of a measure (also called construct validity). A measure is said to be valid if it accurately reflects the meaning of the concept under study.

A specific measurement or observed level of a variable.

A quantity or characteristic that can vary. Although scientists often use this term interchangeably with concept, a variable is technically the operational definition of a concept—the way the abstract concept is measured in the real world.

Recruiting potential interviewees by posting about your study in offline or online spaces.

A sample that has been adjusted to better reflect the distribution of relevant characteristics in the population.

In sampling, adjusting for how much particular cases contribute to the statistics for a sample.

Societies that fall into the categories of “Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic”—which, given inequalities in where scientific research occurs, tend to be where samples for many studies are drawn.

A report that presents an organization’s take on an issue, often meant to spark discussion and debate among policymakers, the public, or other audiences.

A draft definition for a particular concept that the researcher uses at the initial stages of a study to help guide their research.

An initial research question that a researcher develops to guide the design of their study and its early phases.