Variations in Play

Cross-cultural Differences in Play

Early childhood play activities vary widely across cultures, influenced by factors such as social norms, beliefs, values, and geographical location (Sims & Hutchins, 2011). For example, some cultures may place a greater emphasis on physical play such as running, jumping, and climbing, while others may focus more on imaginative play such as storytelling, puppetry, and role-playing (Göncü, 1993; Leisterer-Peoples, 2021; Stengelin et al., 2020; Stengelin et al., 2023).

The Maasai people in East Africa emphasize physical play. From a young age, children are encouraged to engage in jumping contests (Video 12.4) and spear-throwing games, in addition to football (soccer), volleyball, and variations of games like tag. These activities develop physical strength and endurance and prepare children for the physical demands of a semi-nomadic lifestyle and management of natural resources and livestock (Garvey, 1990; Tian et al., 2021). In contrast, the Inuit culture in Canada and Greenland stresses imaginative play, such as storytelling and role-playing. Children are encouraged to develop their creativity, often using natural materials such as snow, ice, and animal skins to create their own toys and games. Storytelling is a central part of Inuit culture, and children are often taught traditional stories and legends through play and storytelling activities (Lutkenhaus & Thomsen, 2013).

Video 12.4 The Maasai’s famous jumping dance.

The availability and use of outdoor play spaces varies as well. For example, in Scandinavian countries, outdoor play is a central part of early childhood education, and children are often encouraged to engage in unstructured play in natural settings (Dankiw et al., 2020; Einarsdóttir, 2011). Even in the winter in other northern climates, unstructured nature play is considered essential (Figure 12.6). Despite challenges due to a frigid climate much of the year, schools generally do not let weather impede scheduled outdoor activities. It not only benefits physical health, but research shows that children who participate in more nature activities show similar kindergarten-readiness as those who attend more academically focused preschools. Being outside also improves executive control, an important precursor to school success (Cordiano et al., 2019; Zamzow & Ernst, 2020).

In the United States, preschoolers engage in a variety of play activities both indoors and outdoors, including games of tag, hide-and-seek, and “Simon Says.” Imaginative play with dolls, stuffed animals, and pretend kitchens is also encouraged. Some young children participate in organized sports, dance classes, and other physical activities.

In some environments group play is emphasized to help children learn social skills. Elsewhere individual play is encouraged to foster creativity and self-reliance. The types of toys and materials available to children can vary widely as well. Some parents may be perfectly comfortable strolling a garden while their children pick up bugs and explore natural materials like sticks, stones, and leaves (Figure 12.7) Others may limit children to “cleaner” indoor activities. Some parents and educators might use more plastic toys, whereas electronic devices may be more common for others. A singular activity does not always have a profound impact on a child’s developmental trajectory, but both adult behaviors and play activities can lead to varying behaviors and thought among groups of children (Wiseman et al., 2019).

Play and Gender

There is no doubt that traditional gender roles influence the types of play activities encouraged for boys and girls in many cultures. For example, boys may be encouraged to engage in heightened physical play and competition, while girls are guided toward quieter activities like drawing and storytelling (Telford et al., 2016). However, especially at the preschool level, children should never be limited or discouraged in play because of the way they look or their biological sex. All children should be treated equally when presented with opportunities to play.

Play and Socioeconomic Status

The influences of SES, specifically income and neighborhood factors, extends into play as well. On average, children from lower-income families live in smaller houses or apartments and closer to urban centers. These circumstances disproportionally influence their play experiences. Compared to peers in suburban or rural areas, children in urban areas have more limited outdoor play spaces, which also leads to lower levels of physical activity (Bao et al., 2021). In these and other settings, smaller indoor play areas and limited outdoor spaces can have a negative impact on overall health and well-being (Bento & Dias, 2017).

SES also affects play behaviors in ways that reflect families’ social and economic circumstances. Children from higher SES backgrounds usually have access to a wider range of toys, materials, and structured activities. While there are clearly benefits to structured activities like recreational sports and educational toys, unstructured, imaginative play has clear benefits as well (Dankiw et al., 2020; Li et al., 2022; Tong Lee et al., 2020). Recognizing and valuing diverse play styles allows us to support children’s development from multiple perspectives. It also fosters cross-cultural understanding and promotes a sense of belonging among all children.

Play and Differing Abilities

While mobility barriers often limit the play opportunities of preschool children with physical disabilities, active play improves their cognition, motor skills, balance, coordination, and overall physical fitness as it does for any child (Shields & Synnot, 2016). Active play also helps prevent obesity, a more common problem among children with physical disabilities (Walker et al., 2019).

Play provides opportunities for younger children with disabilities to interact with their typically developing peers and develop a sense of belonging. Yet it appears there are social barriers as well. Both parents and teachers report that preschool children with physical disabilities face challenges in engaging with their peers (Ebbers et al., 2021). To overcome this constraint, preschools can focus on early introduction of routine outdoor play, emphasizing both inclusive play spaces and inclusive activities that can take place there (Figure 12.8) Training preschool and kindergarten teachers in these practices will help integrate children with disabilities into everyday play activities, and changing the mindset of typically developing children and their parents is important for achieving more equity in social opportunities during play (Ebbers et al., 2021; James et al., 2022).