Chapter 7: Teaching Inquiry, Problem-Solving, and Research

The fifth-grade team meets once a week on Tuesdays for their Professional Learning Community (PLC). Each week the team analyzes a piece of data from the grade level and brainstorms instructional strategies to further their students’ learning. This week they sat around the table with puzzled looks. In weeks prior they had spent time reviewing student literacy data. The literacy data informed them that their students’ comprehension and fluency scores were on grade level. They made the instructional decision to focus on the fifth-grade students’ writing of research reports. The fifth-grade students had just finished their United States history unit on factors that shaped colonial America, so the teachers designed a research report that focused on the political and economic relationships between the colonies and Great Britain. Now the teachers sat with the students’ writing rubrics, which showed the students were not performing where they should be. The teachers questioned, what happened? Was the instruction on writing research reports not clear? Did the students already forget the knowledge they learned in the history unit? Or could it be that the students lack the skills needed to apply the content knowledge they learned in the history unit to write the research report? The teachers need a better understanding of the problem.

Teachers in today’s schools are expected to be problem solvers. This includes their ability to inquire, research, and use critical thinking. Teachers must understand how to collect and analyze data to ensure that their instruction is effective. In addition, we also prepare students for a world in which these same skills are valued. This chapter will explore ways that teachers can make informed instructional decisions, as well as integrate instructional practices that teach students to use similar inquiry-based learning approaches to solve problems and increase critical thinking skills.

Questions to Consider

• How should a teacher approach analyzing data that has been collected?
• What types of research are appropriate for a teacher to employ in a classroom?
• How does inquiry and problem-based learning promote higher level thinking skills across the content areas?
• What models of instruction incorporate the 5 C’s?
• What instructional strategies should be used to teach critical thinking?

Teacher Inquiry and Research

Teachers are taking part in problem solving every day while teaching. These problems may include anything from the most effective method for taking attendance and lunch orders to how to provide reading interventions to students that are not meeting benchmarks. Each decision a teacher makes should be based on previous experience and data. However, data collection is not always a formal process. For example, when a teacher makes the decision to take each student’s lunch order as they greet the student at the door instead of after everyone is seated, they probably didn’t collect formal data and time how long the process took when everyone was seated for five consecutive days, and then time how long it took when greeting students at the door for five days. However, the teacher probably did notice that they were spending ten minutes taking lunch orders and addressing classroom management issues if they waited until students were already seated. The teacher solved the problem by asking students their lunch order when they greeted them at the door.

There are times when teachers make decisions based on informal data, but there are also times when teachers need to collect formal data, analyze the results, and make new instructional plans. The scenario at the beginning of the chapter is an example of a grade level collecting data on students to make instructional decisions. This section will discuss methods teachers may employ after they collect data.

Using Data-based Decision Making

The types of data teachers collect will vary from observing classroom behaviors to collecting summative assessment data. However, before collecting data, there should be a clearly defined and specific goal. Goal setting is an important part of data-based decision making (Marsh, 2012). In addition, these goals should be measurable. Teachers and schools often set large school improvement goals, such as 85% of students will meet a benchmark for math assessments in 5th grade; however, to meet these goals, they also set smaller goals that may lead to the larger goal. For example, if all 9th grade students are going to meet benchmarks for 5th grade, the students must master the standard of comparing and ordering fractions. In this example, both goals are measurable.

Data-based decision making starts with goal setting, but then uses an iterative process that includes collecting data, sense making, and acting and evaluating (Schildkamp, 2019). Collecting data is the first step in determining if goals are being reached, as shown in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1: Data-Based Decision Making

Table 7.1 below describes the types of data that may be collected. Determining which type of data to use depends on the goal set.

Table 7.1: School Data

Note. Table adapted from Schildkamp (2019)

After data has been collected, the data is analyzed, and conclusions are drawn, this is also known as sense-making (Schildkamp, 2019). The data is evaluated to see if there is evidence that the identified goal has been met. While this process may seem simple, the data may be interpreted differently by various stakeholders. For example, in the scenario at the beginning of the chapter, the teacher that designed the history unit may claim that the students knew the content knowledge on the summative history assessment, so it must be that the students do not understand how to write a research report. Another teacher may interpret the data and think that students understand the history concepts and how to write a research report but cannot use critical thinking to transfer their history knowledge to a research paper. Once a conclusion has been reached, the next step in the process is action and evaluation.

The sense making process may lead to further instructional or curriculum changes, or it may lead to further data collection. In the previous scenario, the teachers most likely need data that describes the student’s ability to write a research report or possibly a history assessment that asks the students to use critical thinking skills to answer short essay questions, instead of using rote memorization. If stakeholders agree after they make sense of the data, they may decide on an action that needs to be taken, or they may decide that more data collection is needed. Either way, the process begins again, thus leading to greater improvement of goals and increasing student learning.

Data Driven Dialogue Protocol

One way to evaluate data during data-based decision making is to use the data driven dialogue protocol. The protocol provides a structured way to facilitate conversation surrounding data and allows for time to share prior assumptions and background knowledge before starting any conversations. The following phases occur within the protocol (Figure 7.2):

• Phase 1 Predictions–Surfacing perspectives, beliefs, assumptions, predictions, possibilities, questions and expectations.
• Phase 2 Go Visual–Recreate the data visually.
• Phase 3 Observations–Analyzing the data for patterns, trends, surprises, and new questions that “jump” out.
• Phase 4 Inferences–Generating hypothesis, inferring, explaining, and drawing conclusions. Defining new actions and interactions and the data needed to guide their implementation. Then create a plan of action (Love, 2002).

Figure 7.2: Data Driven Dialogue Protocol

During phase 1, participants in the dialogue are asked to think privately about their predictions before seeing the data. Sentence stems such as “I assume,” “I predict,” or “I wonder” may be given. After this, participants are given the data to look at and recreate visually. Working individually or in groups, participants may want to use large pieces of paper to highlight trends or create other visuals. Then each participant is given time privately again to make observations using only the facts. It is best to use stems such as “I observe,” or “I’m surprised that” rather than “because” or “It seems.” The fourth phase asks participants to consider what the data is saying. Individuals or groups are asked to use prompts such as “I believe the data suggests,” “Additional data that would help confirm my explanation is,” or “A solution to address what is implied in the data may be.” The group can then decide what the next steps are. Is the next step to collect more data or to try to implement a plan of action?

Action Research to Improve Student Learning

There may be times that a teacher wants to try out a new instructional strategy in the classroom or implement a new classroom management technique and collect data to research in their own classroom. These would both be excellent situations for a teacher to implement action research. Action research is a “systematic approach to investigation that enables people to find effective solutions to problems they confront in their everyday lives” (Nasrollahi, 2015). In education, teachers, administrators, and teams may utilize action research to gather data with the goal of improving pedagogy. You may be wondering how action research differs from other types of research or decisions that teachers make every day. Stringer (2004) suggests that it is different in the following ways:

• It is not experimental research designed to be generalizable to all educational settings.
• There is a focus on not only what is happening, but how it is happening.
• It is not a formal process of inquiry but is a systematic way for someone to learn what is improving learning in schools.

Action research relies on the teacher also being the researcher. Lewin (1946) designed a cycle to further research that includes four steps (planning, acting, reflecting, and observing; Figure 7.3). However, it wasn’t until 1949 that Corey introduced the term to education. There are critics of action research that question a teacher’s training and ability to carry out research in the classroom (Norton, 2009), but the purpose of this type of research is to inform pedagogy for specific students in a teacher’s classroom; and no one knows their own students better than the teacher.

Figure 7.3: Lewin’s Cycle

In Lewin’s Cycle the teacher notices a problem or plans to try something new in the classroom. After this plan is complete, the teacher acts by implementing the plan. After implementation is complete, the teacher reflects on how it went. The teacher then observes how instruction is now going and makes new plans. This cycle is continuing to ensure that student learning and improvements in teaching do not remain stagnate (Lewin, 1946).

Teaching Inquiry and Problem-based Learning

Collecting and analyzing data is not only important when making instructional decisions. When teachers and students inquire about a problem, they are using higher level thinking skills to formulate theories and explanations about the world around them. People are naturally curious and are constantly making meaning based on their experiences and the new information presented to them. To promote learning, students should be taught explicit methods to guide their inquiry. Teaching inquiry promotes a systematic way for students to ask questions, evaluate, theorize, and reflect on their own learning.

Teaching Inquiry

Inquiry-based learning took hold in the early 1960’s during the discovery learning movement, which was a response to traditional pedagogical teaching consisting of memorization. It is based on the philosophy of constructivist learning. Constructivism is a theory of learning that states that meaning and knowledge are based on personal and societal experiences (Bachtold, 2013). Many early theorists, such as Piaget, Dewey, Bruner, and Vygotsky subscribe to this theory. For example, Dewey believed that students learn through experiences and Vygotsky and Bruner believed that such experiences should be facilitated by a facilitator (Bruner, 1961; Dewey, 1997; Roth et al., 2013). Students’ ability to construct meaning relies on their ability to make prior connections and build upon them. Inquiry learning is like experiential learning in that students engage in questioning, investigating, and often collaborating to make meaning (Bachtold, 2013). This section will describe several models of inquiry including the following: Suchman Inquiry, Levels of Inquiry, and Problem-based Inquiry.

While Piaget and Vygotsky promoted experience-based learning, Bloom’s Taxonomy also urges educators to employ higher-level thinking skills into pedagogy (Krathwohl, 2002). Suchman’s Inquiry Model promotes higher-level thinking skills while asking students to think through a problem or question to find a solution (Suchman, 1962).

Planning and Managing a Suchman Inquiry Lesson

Teachers in this model present students with a “discrepant event,” or a problem related to a concept; sometimes this may be based on an actual phenomenon. Podcasts or reading can be excellent sources of these kinds of events: for example, one podcast recently described a group of sheep that cannot eat grass, or they will die. This could be an excellent problem to pose to students so that they can ask questions to solve it.

When implementing the model, the teacher should allow students to ask as many questions as they want. They should be encouraged to form new questions based on previous answers. Students may test their theories at any time, but the teacher should not evaluate (Joyce, 1992). It is appropriate for teachers to provide students with materials and texts needed for students to explore their ideas. During this model, students must use creative and higher-level thinking skills. Another important lesson from this model is that students must listen to the questions and responses that came before, and use those to develop later questions and theories.

Levels of Inquiry

John Dewey often criticized the way that science education was being taught. He posited that the teaching of science should be a process and encourage a way of thinking that inspires curiosity, instead of a subject that is to be memorized (Dewey, 1997). In the 1960’s Schwab formalized these processes with his work in inquiry. He believed that science instruction should mimic real world scientific processes. Schwab described four individual levels of inquiry (Schwab, 1960), and in the 1970’s Herron developed a scale to evaluate these levels (Herron, 1971). The four levels are as follows:

• Level 1 Confirmation Inquiry–Theme or topic presented, and then the teacher develops procedures and questions to predetermined result.
• Level 2 Structured Inquiry–Teacher provides initial question and an outline of the procedures. Students analyze data to formulate findings.
• Level 3 Guided Inquiry–Teacher provides research questions, and students must design and follow their own procedures to formulate findings.
• Level 4 Open/True Inquiry–Students provide question, design and procedures, and findings (like what you would see in a science fair).

These levels of inquiry provide a structure to teaching inquiry as well. Instruction should be scaffolded so that students understand each part of the inquiry. For example, if a teacher implements inquiry-based learning in a classroom, they should start by telling students to come up with a question, design, procedures, and then present their findings without prior instruction. Students should be explicitly taught each of those steps. One way to do so is to start at level 1 in a class and work your way up to level 4. It should be noted that students have higher motivation when they are able to inquire about their own interests. However, they also must be equipped with the skills to complete this type of inquiry (Banchi & Bell, 2008).

Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered instructional strategy that allows students to solve real world problems that are open-ended. PBL pedagogy originated in the medical field when students were being inundated with facts and knowledge but were not applying the knowledge. PBL was introduced as a small group guided tutorial where students solved patient problems. However, PBL has been adapted as pedagogy in many fields, including education (Servant-Miklos, 2020). Like other inquiry-based learning models, PBL is based on constructivist theorists, like John Dewey (1997) and Bruner (1961). Dewey believed that students should not only be given experiences but should also be taught “how to think.” PBL provides opportunities to engage students in authentic problem solving. So, how do we implement PBL?

Before beginning, the teacher must be able to articulate the learning outcome of the problem–what knowledge should students be gaining? Or what should students be able to do as a result of the activity? The next step is to create the problem. The problem may be generated by the teacher–but students will be more engaged if they are able to participate in this part of the instruction. For example, if students are studying ecosystems, the teacher may prompt by asking what problems the students currently see with a local ecosystem. The teacher may guide students in coming up with a problem or question in which the students can do further research and come up with a solution for. PBL is usually completed in groups. Within these groups, assigning roles may be beneficial (Nilson, 2010). Once groups and roles are assigned, the teacher should communicate any rules or procedures. For example, what are the expectations for researching the problem, what materials may be used or needed, and how will the final product be presented.

Once a student group has identified a problem and the ground rules have been communicated, students must generally work through the following process (Nilson, 2010):

• Be able to define the problem
• Articulate what they already know about the problem
• Make a list of what they need to learn and what resources they need to further their knowledge
• Take time to research the problem further
• Brainstorm and propose ways to solve the problem
• Solve the problem
• Present solutions

PBL requires students to use higher order thinking skills to solve problems while authentically learning the standards. The teacher is a facilitator for this learning. It is not uncommon for these projects to expand beyond one content area. Cross-curricular learning occurs when the teacher or facilitator outlines procedures that require skills from multiple disciplines. For example, students use English standards when they are researching and writing. Students may use math standards while solving the problem and evaluating their solutions. Social studies skills may be incorporated based on real-world problems. An example of PBL in action can be viewed by watching this video about the Water Quality Project.

When completing a lesson that uses the Problem-based Inquiry Model, it is important to give students the freedom to define the problem and identify where they can find the knowledge that is required to solve it. A lesson using this model can last for 20 minutes or an entire semester, depending on the problem and the resources that students will be able to access. Some possible areas of knowledge include For the last part of the experience Some activities that follow a similar process are genius hour or I-Search projects, webquests, and escape rooms; there are several examples of these online that teachers have created and shared.

Planning a field trip to an escape room can be expensive, and maybe you don’t teach within walking distance of one; however, elements of such an experience can be recreated in the classroom with products like Breakoutedu or even in a digital space. Figure 7.4 depicts a classroom that has been set up for students to complete an escape room experience.

Figure 7.4: Classroom Escape Room Experience

The 5 C’s with a Focus on Critical Thinking

The focus of teaching inquiry and problem-based learning is to help students use higher order skills to engage in authentic learning. Educators and individuals involved in determining the skills needed by students today recognize the need for students to develop skills beyond content knowledge. In 2015, the Virginia Standards of Learning Innovation Committee sent a report to the General Assembly recommending that the Board of Education adjust diploma requirements to ensure that students had these skills in their profile. In 2016, the General Assembly approved House Bill 895 and Senate Bill 336. These two bills directed the Board of Education to articulate a “Profile of a Virginia Graduate” that identified these skills (Virginia Department of Education [VDOE], 2022). In particular, the profile was asked to consider the “5 C’s”, as well as place emphasis on the development of these skills in the early years of high school. The bill also asked the Board to establish multiple paths towards college. The following were articulated as the “5 C’s”:

1. Critical Thinking,
2. Creative Thinking,
3. Collaboration,
4. Communication, and
5. Citizenship.

The 5 C’s are a focus in all grade levels and can be implemented early. Each skill is important to developing a student’s ability to learn effectively. The next section will focus on critical thinking. It is important to understand and consider how each of these skills may be acquired through the previously introduced inquiry models.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking has been identified as a core concept to be taught in schools, but what is critical thinking? Critical thinking is defined as “The intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication.” (Scriven & Paul, 2007, p. 1). In short, students that can think critically are not just memorizing knowledge but are using knowledge to make connections and problem solve. For example, if a student has memorized that plants need light, air, water, nutrients, and space to grow, then they may be able to answer a simple multiple-choice question asking what a plant needs to grow. However, a student needs critical thinking skills to evaluate and plan for the best location to plant a seed for it to grow. Critical thinking is not a skill that comes naturally. Students must be explicitly taught how to think critically (Snyder & Snyder, 2008).

Teaching critical thinking has been promoted as a basic goal of schooling, along with basic academic skills, social skills, citizenship, and preparing for the work environment (Rothstein et al., 2007). Teachers must incorporate critical thinking, as well as content, into the instructional design of their lessons. Instructional strategies that will promote critical thinking and higher-order thinking skills (Bloom, 1956), such as application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation should be integrated into lessons and assessments. Before a student is expected to perform these critical thinking strategies, the teacher must model the process “out-loud” for students. One way to do this is for the teacher to pose a problem and model their own thought process as they work through the problem. For example, the teacher may pose the question, “How many slices of pizza would we need to feed all of the fifth-grade students at our school?” The teacher would then use a “think-aloud” to describe their thinking.

Using a think-aloud is just one instructional strategy that we can use to model critical thinking for students. Making thinking visible is an important skill that takes practice. Teachers often leave out important details of their thinking because they assume that some content or process is common knowledge. Students bring a wide variety of content knowledge and background knowledge to the classroom. Teachers should not assume any common knowledge across all students. While modeling is an important first step, teachers should also guide students in practicing critical thinking.

An instructional strategy that may be utilized in activating critical thinking is asking questions. Questioning techniques help students demonstrate and practice critical thinking skills, while also keeping them active and engaged. Brown and Kelly (1986) suggest the following types of questions to ask students because they ask students to evaluate their answers by questioning their thought process.

• What do you think about this?
• Why do you think that?
• What is your knowledge based on?
• What does it imply and presuppose?
• How are you viewing it?
• What explains it, connects to it, leads from it?

These types of questions not only allow students to practice thinking critically, but they also ask students to “think about their own thinking,” which is also called metacognition (Flavell, 1979). Students in all grade levels should be taught critical thinking and metacognition. In addition to asking questions, another instructional strategy to teach critical thinking is through questions, case studies, or scenarios that do not have a right or wrong answer. For example, the teacher could ask students if Chick Fil A or McDonalds fast food restaurants are better. There is no right or wrong answer, but students must be asked to explain and justify their choice. The teacher’s role during this type of instruction is to probe for students to explain their answers and provide individualized feedback that assesses student’s thinking.

Teachers should not only model and guide students in critical thinking, but they should also provide assessments that allow students to use critical thinking skills. Assessments should combine the assessment of content knowledge with a students’ ability to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information, not just memory recall. Assessments may come in the form of essay, short answer, multiple-choice, or performance. Teachers can use Bloom’s Taxonomy levels of application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Bloom, 1956) to write assessments utilizing verbs that will promote higher level thinking skills; Bloom’s lower levels of recalling memorized information and comprehension do not necessarily incorporate critical thinking and are not included. Table 7.2 shows verbs that may be used to incorporate critical thinking into assessments based on the verbs in the questions (Boston University Medical Campus [BUMC], 2022).

Table 7.2: Assessment Verbs to Assess Students’ Critical Thinking Using Bloom’s Taxonomy

Note. Table adapted from Boston University Medical Campus (n.d.).

Conclusion

It is important for both teachers and students in the classroom to understand how to solve real world problems. For teachers, the collection of data and using data-based decision making is important in making instructional decisions (Schildkemp, 2019). The use of working in a professional learning community (PLC) may help facilitate this decision making, but to effectively engage in this dialogue, a protocol, such as Data-driven dialogue should be used (Love, 2002). Once instructional decisions are implemented in a classroom, teachers may also engage in action research (Lewin, 1946). Action research allows the teacher to implement instructional changes, collect data, reflect, and make effective instructional changes in the classroom.

At the same time teachers are using research and thinking critically to solve problems, students should also be taught the skills to use inquiry to solve problems. Suchman’s Inquiry Model (Suchman, 1966), levels of inquiry (Banchi & Bell, 2008), and problem-based learning (Nilson, 2010) are all models of teaching higher order thinking skills. Higher order thinking skills have been identified in the implementation of the 5 C’s, which includes critical thinking.

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