Glossary of Terms

adjective: a type of word used to describe nouns and describing properties. In Mvskoke, they are derived from verbs and end in -ē or -e. Example: catē ‘red’.

adverbial clause: a sentence that modifies another sentence (often describing when or if one action happens). Example: ayof… ‘when he/she goes…’.

agent person marker: a person marker used to indicate someone in control of a situation. Example: hompetskv? ‘are you eating?’

aspect: describes the stage a situation is at at a point in time (completed, in progress, etc.).

aspirating grade: a specific form a verb takes when it is describing an event being completed prior to another situation or in the recent past. The form consists of inserting h or i in the last syllable of the verb stem. Example: wvnahyes ‘he/she tied it (today/last night)’.

auxiliary verb: a helping verb that occurs with a main verb. Example: mēcē witēs ‘he/she might do it’.

counterfactual: a pattern used to express something that has not happened or is not the case.

dative person marker: a person marker used to indicate someone indirectly affected by an action or state of being. Example: vm opunayes ‘he/she is talking for me’.

demonstrative: a type of word that describes and points to people or things being discussed. Example: mv efv ‘that dog’.

diphthong: a combination of two vowels in a syllable. Example: ue. The letter i is written with one letter, but is a diphthong of v + e.

directional prefix: a prefix added to a verb that indicates direction. Example: ahēces ‘he/she is looking this way’.

dual: referring to two.

event: a happening or occurrence. Example: lētkes ‘he/she is running’.

falling-tone grade: a specific form a verb takes when it describes a state resulting from an event. Example: ēses ‘he/she is holding it’.

grade: verbs in Mvskoke change their shape based on whether an action is in progress, completed, etc. These changes are called grades. Example: kvsvppēs ‘it is cold’ vs. kvsappes ‘it is getting cold’.

imperfective aspect: not successfully completed once (like a state or an event that didn’t happen or that happened repeatedly).

instrumental prefix: a prefix added to a verb that indicates that the action is being done with a tool, the hands, etc. Example: eshompetv ‘to eat with (a spoon, etc.)’.

lengthened grade: a specific form a verb takes when it describes an event. Example: kvsappes ‘it is getting cold’.

locative prefix: a prefix added to a verb that indicates where the action takes place. Example: aktasketv ‘to jump in the water (of one)’.

long vowel: a vowel that is held longer than a short vowel. Examples: a, ē, o.

manner adverb: an adverb that describes how an action is carried out. In Mvskoke these are formed from adjectives by adding -n.

nasal vowel: a vowel that is pronounced through the nose. Examples: ą, ǫ.

nasalizing grade: a specific form a verb takes when it describes a prolonged state or recurring event.

numeral: a type of word that refers to a number. Example: hvmken ‘one’.

ordinal number: a number indicating order in a sequence. Example: ’svhokkolat ‘the second’.

patient person marker: a person marker used to indicate someone directly affected by an action or in a state of being. Example: cvnvfikes ‘he/she hit me’.

perfective aspect: successfully completed once.

person marker: a bound element referring to a person. The element may be an affix or written as a separate word. Example vm efv ‘my dog’.

personal pronoun: a type of noun referring to the speaker (first person), the hearer (second person), or another person or thing (third person).

postposition: a type of word indicating direction, location, or the relationship of a noun phrase to other words. Example: sukcv ofv ‘in the bag’.

plural: referring to two or more.

pronoun: a type of noun that refers to people or things being discussed. Example: cēme ‘you’. Pronouns include personal pronouns (words like vne ‘I’), demonstrative pronouns (words like mv ‘that one’), interrogative pronouns (words like esti ‘who’), and indefinite pronouns (words like nake ‘something’).

relative clause: a sentence modifying a noun. Example: in mv honvnwv yi alikat ‘the man who is sitting there’, yi alikat ‘who is sitting there’ is a relative clause.

time adverb: a type of adverb that describes when an action takes place.

relative clause: a clause that modifies a noun.

singular: referring to one.

state: a steady condition. Example: kvsvppēs ‘it is cold’.

tense: a grammatical pattern indicating when a situation takes place.

triplural: referring to three or more.

verb: an action or state of being. Example: mēcvs! ‘do it!’

verb root: the most basic part of a verb.

verbal noun: a type of noun derived from a verb where the noun refers to an action or state of being. In Mvskoke, verbal nouns end in –etv (“infinitives”) or -kv. Example: vtotketv ‘to work’.

verb stem: the part of a verb (sometimes larger than a verb root) affected by grades. In Mvskoke, the verb stem is the part before -etv. Some suffixes like plural -vk attach to verb roots and form stems. If none of these suffixes is present, it’s the verb root that is affected by grades: opvn-etv ‘to dance’ → opan-es ‘he/she is dancing (lengthened grade)’. If one of these suffixes is present, it is the suffix that is affected: opvn-vk-etv ‘to dance (of two or more)’ → opvn-ak-es ‘they are dancing’.

wh-questions: questions that use question words like nake ‘what’ or esti ‘who’.

yes/no question: a type of question seeking a simple yes or no answer.

zero grade: the base form of a verb (with no lengthening, aspiration, etc.). The zero grade is used in commands, states, negative verb forms, and future tense.