Chapter 11: Development of Self and Identity
Learning Objectives
- Describe the development of self from infancy to adolescence, including characteristics of self, Erikson’s stages associated with each stage, and Marcia’s identity statuses
- Explain the development of self-esteem and it’s relation to self-efficacy
- Explain theories of gender identity development
- Explain sexual identity development, including biological explanations
- Explain ethnic identity development using Phinney’s model
- Describe other areas of identity development
- Explain moral development according to Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan’s theories
Psychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings.
One’s sense of self begins to develop in infancy and changes as a function of cognitive and emotional developments during childhood and adolescence. A well-developed identity is comprised of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is committed. It is the awareness of the consistency in self over time, the recognition of this consistency by others. The process of identity development is both an individual and social phenomenon (Adams & Marshall, 1996). Much of this process is assumed during adolescence when cognitive development allows for an individual to construct a ‘theory of self’ based on exposure to role models and identity options. Erikson (1968) believed this period of development to be an ‘identity crisis,’ a crucial turning point in which an individual must develop in one way or another, ushering the adolescent toward growth and differentiation. Identity is formed through a process of exploring options or choices and committing to an option based upon the outcome of their exploration. Failure to establish a well-developed sense of identity can result in identity confusion. Those experiencing identity confusion do not have a clear sense of who they are or their role in society.
Identity development is vital to a person’s understanding of self and participation in their social systems. Adams and Marshall (1996) established that identity formation provides five functions: a structure and order to self-knowledge; a sense of consistency and coherence to beliefs, goals, and self-knowledge; a sense of continuity for one’s history and future; goals and direction; a sense of personal control of their choices and outcomes.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development emphasizes the social nature of our development. His theory proposed that our psychosocial development takes place throughout our lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity. He also believed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives.
According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
Table 11.1 Erikson’s psychosocial Stages of Development
| Stage | Age (years) | Developmental Task | Description |
| 1 | 0–1 | Trust vs. mistrust | Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met |
| 2 | 1–3 | Autonomy vs. shame/doubt | Develop a sense of independence in many tasks |
| 3 | 3–6 | Initiative vs. guilt | Take the initiative on some activities—may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped |
| 4 | 7–11 | Industry vs. inferiority | Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not |
| 5 | 12–18 | Identity vs. confusion | Experiment with and develop identity and roles |
| 6 | 19–29 | Intimacy vs. isolation | Establish intimacy and relationships with others |
| 7 | 30–64 | Generativity vs. stagnation | Contribute to society and be part of a family |
| 8 | 65– | Integrity vs. despair | Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions |
Video 11.1 Erikson’s Psychosocial Development explains all stages of this theory.
